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HANDBOOK 

FOR 

RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


HANDBOOK 

FOR 
RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


BY 


JAY   L.  B.  TAYLOR 

FORMERLY    FOREST    RAXGER 
UNITED    STATES    FOREST    SERVICE 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  Inc. 

London;   CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 


Copyright,  i9i6,by 
JAY  L.  B.  TAYLOR 


Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 


PRESS    OF 
BRAUNWORTH    &    CO   .      NC 
,  BOOK    MANUFACTURERS 

7/ 3  J  BROOKLYN,   NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 

(1)  Object. — The  object  of  this  volume  is  to  serve  as  a  guide 
for  inexperienced  men  in  woods  work.  While  in  its  preparation, 
the  author  had  primarily  in  mind  the  problems  which  confront 
a  forest  ranger,  in  Government,  State,  or  private  employ,  and 
especially  rangers  on  National  Forests,  yet  the  suggestions  of- 
fered may  be  of  use  to  others  whose  work  or  recreation  takes 
them  into  rough  and  unsettled  regions.  The  book  is  not  in- 
tended and  should  not  be  considered  in  any  way  as  an  official 
or  even  a  semi-official  pubfication  the  use  of  which  is  obhga- 
tory  upon  National  Forest  Rangers.  It  has  been  prepared, 
however,  by  permission  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  whose 
criticisms  have  been  carefully  considered  and  at  whose  request 
certain  revisions  have  been  made,  and  is  strictly  in  the  nature  of 
a  private  pubfication  prepared  after  eight  years  of  experience  in 
field  work  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service. 

It  is  not  placed  before  the  pubfic  with  any  intention  or  desire 
on  the  part  of  the  author  to  insist  that  opinions  of  inexperi- 
enced persons  must  coincide  with  the  ones  expressed  here  before 
satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained.  On  the  contrary,  the 
absolute  necessity  for  exercising  ingenuity  and  originaUty  of 
thought,  in  so  far  as  this  is  practicable,  is  thoroughly  appreciated 
and  is  suggested  as  the  most  effective  means  of  extrication  from 
all  difficulties  encountered,  especially  those  the  solution  of  which 
cannot  be  touched  upon  here. 

(2)  Brevity. — Recognition  of  the  fact  that  volume  after  vol- 
ume might  stiU  fail  to  cover  in  detail  any  one  of  the  subjects 
discussed  here  makes  it  at  once  apparent  that  only  the  most 
essential  points  can  be  covered  in  a  book  of  this  size.  Conse- 
quently only  such  problems  as  have  been  found  to  be  especially 
difficult  for  the  inexperienced  woodsman  are  considered. 

(3)  Technical  Terms. — These  have  been  avoided  so  far  as 
such  a  course  seemed  practical,  and  all  unusual  trade  or  pro- 
fessional terms  with  which  the  beginner  can  not  be  expected 
to  be  famifiar  have  been  defined  in  the  Glossary. 

(4)  Cost  Data. — It  is  assumed  as  general  knowledge  that 
costs  increase  as  western  sections  are  reached  and  that  tabu- 


iv  PKEFACE 

lated  lists  of  costs  covering  each  article  and  applicable  to  each 
section  would  require  work  and  research  of  a  nature  not  justi- 
fied by  or  compatible  with  the  nature  of  this  book.  Therefore 
the  costs  given  range  from  the  minimum  for  the  cheaper  grades 
to  the  maximum  for  the  better  grades  of  articles  mentioned. 

Finally,  it  is  sincerely  hoped  that  beginners  will  not  be  con- 
tent to  accept  the  following  suggestions  as  the  only  possible  or 
the  most  effective  solutions  of  the  problems  involved,  but  that 
they  will  be  continually  on  the  alert  to  discover  other  and  more 
effective  solutions  which  they  may  transmit  to  their  successors. 

Sincerest  thanks  ara  extended  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
Chief  Forester  Graves,  District  Forester  Ringland,  and  Forest 
Supervisors  Kiefer  and  Hinderer  for  assistance  rendered;  to 
Forest  Ranger  Russell,  who  spent  some  fourteen  years  as  a  sol- 
dier and  Forest  Officer  in  the  PhiUppine  Islands  and  who  con- 
tributed the  article  on  "  Field  Work  in  the  Phihppine  Islands  "; 
to  Forest  Ranger  Perry,  Special  Detail  on  Telephone  Construc- 
tion, Carson  National  Forest,  for  valuable  suggestions  ofTered 
on  the  subject  of  "  Telephone  Construction  " ;  to  Assistant  Forest 
Ranger  Warner,  Prescott  National  Forest,  for  the  timely  sug- 
gestions he  has  offered  on  the  subject  of  "  Identification  of 
Livestock";  to  ex-Forest  Guard  HighfiU,  Arkansas  National 
Forest,  for  practical  assistance  extended  in  compihng  the  article 
on  "  Care  of  Horses  ";  toR.  C.  Bryant,  Professor  of  Lumbering, 
and  S.  J.  Record,  both  of  the  Yale  Forest  School,  for  their 
continued  assistance  and  interest  in  this  work;  to  the  Moline 
Plow  Company  for  illustrations  and  assistance  furnished  on  the 
subject  of  "  Wagons  ";  to  the  Lufkin  Rule  Company  for  illus- 
trations and  for  the  Doyle  log  rule  and  the  table  showing  com- 
parisons of  various  log  rules;  to  the  Pratt  Food  Company  for 
advice  concerning  ''Diseases  of  Live  Stock";  to  the  Western 
Electric  Company  for  their  assistance  and  continued  interest 
in  the  subject  of  "  Telephone  Construction  ";  to  the  Du  Pont 
Powder  Company  for  illustrations  and  data  on  "Blasting"; 
to  the  Simmons  Hardware  Company  for  illustrations  and  infor- 
mation suppHed;  to  the  International  Harvester  Company  for 
information  contributed;  to  Swift  &  Company  and  Armour  & 
Company  for  courtesies  extended;  to  the  late  N.  H.  C.  Taylor, 
formerly  of  the  Signal  Corps,  United  States  Army,  for  data 
supphed;  to  O.  St.  John,  M.  D.,  for  assistance  rendered  in  the 
compilation  of  the  subject  "  Ailments  ";   to  H.  T.  Southworth, 


PREFACE  V 

M.  D,,  City  Health  Officer  of  Prescott,  Arizona,  for  valuable 
suggestions  concerning  the  subject  of  ''Poisoning";  to  the 
Southwestern  Portland  Cement  Company  for  advice  on  the 
subject  of  "  Concrete  Work  ";  to  C.  C.  Queen,  practical  black- 
smith and  shoer,  for  assistance  rendered  in  the  compilation  of 
the  subject  relating  to  horseshoeing;  to  E.  G.  Bosserman, 
practical  painter  and  paper-hanger  for  advice  on  the  subject 
of  "  Painting  ";  to  J.  A.  Richards,  sawmill  operator,  for  advice 
on  the  subject  of  "Woods  Work";  to  N.  H.  Getchell,  mine 
operator,  for  suggestions  concerning  "Blasting";  to  J.  E. 
Bacon,  packer,  for  assistance  in  the  work  of  compiling  the 
article  on  "Packing";  and  to  Chas.  B.  Weil,  whose  practical 
suggestions,  offered  from  the  view-point  of  an  experienced  camper, 
have  proven  of  inestimable  value  in  the  work  of  assembling  and 
preparing  the  subjects  covered  here. 

J.   L.   B.   T. 
Groom  Creek,  Arizona, 
December  1,   1916. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface iii 

Equipment 1 

Personal 1 

Riding 10 

Packing 20 

Animal .24 

Cooking 28 

Provisions 30 

Construction  Work 31 

Telephone  Lines 31 

Telephones 49 

Telephone  Troubles 51 

Trails 52 

Rock  Drilling 72 

Blasting 74 

Buildings 85 

Concrete  Work 99 

Painting 105 

Fences 107 

Carpenter's  Kit  . 119 

Carpenter's  Square 127 

Shears 137 

General  Field  Work 139 

Riding 139 

Packing 147 

Wagons 153 

Driving 167 

Woods  Work 170- 

Estimating  Timber 180 

Felling  Timber 183 

Bucking  Logs 186 

Log  Scaling 188 

Land  Surveys 192 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

General   Field  Work  {Continued)  page 

Surveying  Crews  and  Their  Work 198 

Standard  Forest  Service  Compass 200 

Variation 203 

Traverse  Tables 204 

Fire  Fighting 205 

Field  Cooking 210 

Care  of  Field  Cooking  Utensils 224 

Butchering 225 

Live  Stock 227 

Care  of  Horses 227 

Shoeing 231 

Hobbling 238 

Diseases  of  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Hogs        .      .      .  240 

Administering  Medicines 266 

Subjugating  Horses 267 

Purchasing  a  Saddle  Horse 272 

Identification  of  Stock 279 

Brands 280 

Ear-Marks 291 

Ear  Buttons 294 

Ear  Loops 294 

Ear  Tags 294 

Dewlaps 294 

Ages  of  Cattle 295 

Miscellaneous 296 

Ailments  and  Injuries 296 

Treatments 296 

Poisons 310 

Reptiles 315 

Location  of  Camp  Sites 319 

Confusion  of  Directions .  322 

Fastenings 325 

Field  Work  in  the  Phihppine  Islands 338 

Appendix 341 

Administrative  Districts 341 

Forest  Supervisors'  Headquarters 341 

Lands  Acquired  Under  the  Weeks  Law 346 

Weights 346 


CONTENTS  IX 

Appendix    {Continued)  page 

Measures 347 

Weights  and  Measurements  of  Hay,  Grain,  Seed,  and 

Vegetables 349 

Per  Cent.  Measurement  of  Grades 351 

Miscellaneous  Weights 352 

Relation  of  Degrees  and  Per  Cent 354 

To  Ascertain  Grades  without  a  Gradometer        .      .      .  354 

Sag  Tables 355 

To  Ascertain  Distant  Elevations 356 

Traverse  Table 357 

Preservative  Treatment  of  Telephone  Poles  .      .      .      .  358 

Size  and  Number  of  Nails  per  Pound 359 

Materials  Required  in  Concrete 362 

Blasting  Charges 369 

Government  Formula  for  Whitewash 369 

Log  Rules 369 

Comparison  of  Log  Rules 377 

Glossary 379 

Index ,     ,     , 407 


Handbook  for  Rangers 
and  Woodsmen 

EQUIPMENT 

PERSONAL 

CLOTHING 

Altitude,  latitude,  and  season  must  of  course  be  carefully 
considered  before  field  clothing  is  purchased,  and  if  personal 
experience  has  taught  the  purchaser  that  garments  of  different 
weight  or  texture  than  those  hereafter  described  will  prove 
more  comfortable  in  his  individual  case  he  should  by  all  means 
secure  them.  In  case  of  doubt  he  will  find  the  following  sug- 
gestions of  more  or  less  assistance  until  such  time  as  actual 
field  experience  will  have  shown  him  just  what  articles  are  best 
suited  to  his  personal  tastes. 

Official  efforts  have  been  and  are  still  being  made  to  popular- 
ize the  use  of  Forest  Service  uniforms,  the  wearing  of  which 
may  possibly  become  general,  if  not  compulsory,  within  the 
near  future.  The  two  principal  varieties  of  proposed  uniform 
goods  are  a  whipcord  of  serge  and  a  cloth  closely  approximating 
this  in  nature  and  being  especially  strong  and  durable.  Officers 
who  favor  the  use  of  uniforms  base  their  opinion  on  the  necessity 
for  two  things,  viz.,  the  neatness  of  appearance  of  the  officer 
as  compared  with  his  appearance  in  ordinary  civihan  clothing, 
and  the  beneficial  educational  effect  on  the  general  pubhc,  and 
upon  transients  in  particular. 

The  following  suggestions,  therefore,  are  applicable  chiefly 
to  campers  in  general,  and  if  followed  by  Forest  officers  should 
be  so  modified,  so  far  as  purchases  are  concerned,  as  to  meet  with 
official  approval  upon  the  particular  Forests  to  which  such 
officers  are  to  be  assigned. 

Hat. — A  hat  for  general  field  wear  should  be  of  the  best  grade 
obtainable,  since  the  cheaper  grades  soon  lose  their  shape,  become 
Hmp  and  uncomfortable,  and  are  eventually  more  costly  than 

1 


2     HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

the  better  grades.  A  $5.00,  thirty-ounce  hat  will  give  the 
best  all-round  service.  The  crown  should  be  43^  or  5  inches 
high  (a  low  crown  is  uncomfortably  warm  in  summer)  and  the 
brim  should  be  flexible  and  3  or  334  inches  wide.  A  stiff  brim  is 
to  be  avoided,  especially  where  the  hat  is  to  be  worn  in  thick 
underbrush  or  during  very  windy  weather.  In  color  a  nutria 
tan  is  preferable.  A  black  hat  is  uncomfortably  warm  in  summer, 
and  when  wet  invariably  stains  the  wearer's  forehead  and  face. 
Much  less  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  keeping  the  hat  on  in 
brush  or  during  windy  weather  if  the  leather  sweat-band  is 
removed. 

To  Use  a  Hat  as  a  Drinking-Cup. — The  brim  is  folded  upward 
against  the  sides  of  the  crown  and  held  there  with  one  hand 
across  the  crown. 

The  end  of  the  brim  nearest  the  thumb  and  forefinger  is  then 
dipped  into  the  water  and  the  other  end  submerged  later,  allowing 
the  brim  to  fill.  The  water  is  taken  from  the  end  most  con- 
venient, usually  the  one  first  dipped  into  the  water. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  water  a  horse  from  a  pool  or  stream 
to  which  the  animal  is  unable  to  gain  access  a  hat  may  be  used 
in  Ueu  of  a  bucket.  In  such  a  case  the  animal  takes  the  water 
from  the  inverted  crown. 

Cap. — The  most  serviceable  cap  is  leather-covered,  wool- 
fined,  fitted  with  ear  tabs  and  forehead  and  neck  protector,  and 
costs  from  $1.25  to  $10.00,  according  to  style  and  finish.  Its 
use  is  not  recommended,  however,  unless  the  weather  is  so 
extremely  cold  that  comfort  can  not  be  secured  by  wearing  a  hat. 

Coat. — A  coat  will  be  found  of  fittle  or  no  practical  value  except 
for  use  in  lounging  about  camp.  The  heavy  ready-made  work- 
coats  are  not  constructed  in  a  way  that  allows  a  field  man  as 
much  freedom  of  motion  as  his  work  requires,  and  if  one  is  to  be 
used  it  should  be  at  least  two  sizes  larger  than  that  usually 
worn.  A  common  "denim"  jumper  will  give  much  better 
satisfaction  and  wear  better  than  a  coat.  It  is  made  with 
from  two  to  five  pockets,  is  short-bodied,  buttons  close  up  under 
the  chin,  and  is  almost  indestructible.  The  cost  varies  from 
80  cents  to  $1.50. 

Coat  Sweater. — This  is  not  recommended  for  use  in  brushy 
country.  However,  if  one  is  to  be  worn  it  should  be  of  the  best 
grade,  made  with  two  pockets,  a  roll  collar,  and  to  button  to  the 
top.    The  cost  is  about  $5.00. 


EQUIPMENT  3 

Slicker. — A  cheap  slicker  is  to  be  avoided.  The  best  grade 
weighs  but  httle  more  and  will  give  much  greater  satisfaction. 
For  general  field  use  the  yeUow  pommel  sHcker,  made  with 
adjustable  wristlets,  re-enforced  shoulders,  throat  latch,  and  one 
outside  pocket,  and  weighing  about  six  and  one-half  pounds,  is 
recommended.     The  cost  varies  from  S2.50  to  $3.50. 

Shirt. — A  shirt  for  both  summer  and  winter  wear  should  be  of 
the  regular  medium  weight,  army  woolen  variety,  with  double 
back,  twD  pockets,  and  wide  collar.  It  will  cost  from  $2.50 
to  $5.00. 

Trousers. — Conmion  ''denim"  overalls  are  recommended  for 
general  rough  field  work.  They  should  be  well  riveted,  bibless, 
with  top  front  pockets,  watch  pocket,  and  two  hip  pickets. 
They  cost  from  sixty  cents  to  $1.50  per  pair. 

Corduroy  is  extremely  hea\y  and  stiff  when  wet,  and  except  in 
the  verj'  best  grades  the  nap  soon  wears  ofT  and  breaks  appear 
at  WTinkles.  The  cloth  is  easily  torn  and  is  otherwise  unsatis- 
factory as  trousers  material.  A  good  grade  of  whipcord  will  give 
much  better  satisfaction  than  corduroy. 

Underwear. — Medium  weight,  full  length,  woolen  underwear 
for  both  summer  and  winter  wear  will  be  found  generally  more 
comfortable  than  other  varieties.  Cotton  wear  is  cold  and 
clammy  when  wet,  and  if  the  wearer  stops  exercising  when  warm 
he  is  quite  hable  to  take  cold.  Woolen  wear  does  not  possess 
this  disadvantage.  The  wearer  may  even  plunge  into  water, 
and  if  he  wrings  his  underwear  thoroughly  upon  emerging  may 
replace  it  and  feel  no  ill  effects  later.  Fleece-hned  wear  is 
not  recommended.     Suits  varj'  in  price  from  $1.50  to  $5.00. 

FOOTWEAR 

Here  again  personal  experience  must  dictate  what  purchases 
should  be  made,  and  the  following  remarks  on  the  subject  of 
footwear  are  offered  only  as  a  general  guide  for  the  field  man 
who  has  never  before  encountered  the  question  of  comfortable 
footwear  in  outdoor  w^ork. 

Work  Shoes. — If  considerable  walking  is  to  be  done,  such  as  in 
surveying  or  timber  cruising,  shoes  should  have  wide,  roomy  toes 
and  low,  flat  heels.  The}^  should  be  made  to  lace  rather  than 
to  buckle  or  button.  Low-cut  styles  allow  snags  and  brush  to 
injure  the  ankles  and  insteps;  moreover,  the  entrance  of  leaves, 


4     HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

twigs,  gravel,  etc.,  soon  requires  their  removal.  A  pair  of  forty- 
or  fifty-ounce  elkskin,  full-vamped,  heavy-soled,  screw-fastened, 
seamless  shoes,  costing  from  $2.50  to  $5.00  will  give  general 
satisfaction.     They  may  be  ordered  wdth  or  without  hob-nails. 

Shoe  Strings. — Cloth  shoe  strings  should  not  be  included  in 
the  camp  equipment;  they  are  too  easily  frayed,  w^orn  through, 
or  broken  to  prove  satisfactory.  The  best  material  from  which 
shoe  strings  can  be  made  is  buckskin,  whang  leather,  or  lace 
leather,  such  strings  costing  from  five  to  fifteen  cents  per  pair. 
Eelskin  also  makes  very  strong,  durable  strings. 

Hob-Nails. — These  are  short  heavy  nails  fitted  with  large 
heads  and  designed  for  the  protection  of  shoe  soles  and  heels. 
Common  hob-nails  have  large  round,  smooth  heads,  Bulgarian 
nails  have  extra  large  serrated  heads,  and  Swiss  and  EngUsh 
edging  nails  have  large  pyramidal  heads  fitted  with  lips  which 
extend  upward  outside  of  and  act  as  protection  to  the  sole 
edges.  Lengths  vary  from  ^  inch  to  1}4  inches.  The  points 
are  not  synimetrically  fashioned  like  those  of  common  wire  nails, 
but  are  cut  long  at  one  side  in  order  to  lead  the  shank  of  the 
nail  in  any  desired  direction.  Therefore,  in  driving  hob-nails 
near  the  edge  of  the  sole,  this  long  side  of  the  point  is  set  toward 
the  center  of  the  sole,  and  thus  prevents  the  point  from  emerging 
outside  of  the  upper  leather.  Nails  long  enough  to  reach  com- 
pletely through  the  sole  should  not  be  used.  They  are  excellent 
conductors  and  will  prove  very  uncomfortable  in  extreme  weather. 

Soles  should  be  nailed  only  along  the  edges  with  possibly  one 
or  two  rows  of  nails  through  the  center.  Too  many  nails  are 
detrimental  rather  than  beneficial,  this  being  due  to  the  fact 
that  a  sole  driven  full  of  nails  burns,  breaks,  or  weakens  sooner 
than  one  carrying  only  a  few  nails.  Moreover,  the  wearer's 
progress  is  retarded  rather  than  assisted  if  large  numbers  of 
nails  are  used,  the  reason  for  this  being  that  so  many  nail-heads 
set  close  together  present  an  almost  even  iron  surface  to  the 
ground,  and  thus  cause  shpping. 

Shoe  Calks. — These  are  screws  fitted  with  sharp  heads  and 
are  used  to  prevent  shpping  when  the  shoe  shank  is  set  against 
a  log.  They  are  inserted  in  the  shank  by  means  of  a  short  ^vTench 
which  works  against  the  squared  shoulders.  The  points  soon 
become  dull  and  blunt  when  used  in  rocky  country,  and  for  this 
reason  calks  are  not  recommended  for  field  use. 

Heel  Plates, — These  are  flat  iron  plates   shaped  like   horse- 


EQUIPMENT  5 

shoes  and  punched  for  attachment  to  the  shoe  heels.  Their 
use  is  much  more  Hkely  to  cause  slipping  on  flat  stones  or  logs 
than  if  they  are  not  used.  A  row  of  hob-nails  driven  along  the 
outer  edge  of  the  heel  is  much  more  effective  than  a  heel  plate. 

Bootees. — Many  field  men  prefer  these  to  shoes  for  general 
outdoor  use  and  contend  that  the  extra  weight  involved  is  more 
than  offset  by  the  increased  protection  afforded  the  ankles  and 
shins.  However,  bootees  should  not  exceed  15  inches  in  height 
nor  sixty  ounces  in  weight.  The  15-inch,  bellows-tongue,  full- 
vamp,  screw-fastened,  double-sole,  toe-capped  varietj^,  costing 
from  .$5.00  to  $7.00,  will  give  general  satisfaction.  Side  gussets 
at  the  top  or  ankle  hang  in  brush  and  weeds,  and  impede 
progress  in  traveling.  Moccasin  bootees,  not  having  toe  caps, 
allow  stumps,  logs,  and  stones  to  bruise  the  wearer's  toes.  Eye- 
lets are  preferable  to  hooks.  The  latter  hang  in  brush,  the  laces 
are  torn  out,  and  the  wearer  must  be  continuall}-  relacing  them. 
Eyelets  require  a  little  more  time  in  lacing  and  unlacing,  but 
during  a  day's  tramp  the  extra  time  involved  is  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  avoidance  of  constantly  relacing  hooks.  Side 
buckles  at  the  top  are  not  only  unnecessary,  but  they  also  present 
an  added  means  of  annoyance  in  thick  brush.  Outside  counters 
soon  rip  loose. 

Riding  Boots. — The  boots  kno\sTi  as  "stockmen's  riding 
boots"  should  not  be  worn  if  much  walking  is  to  be  done.  The 
heels  are  too  high  and  the  toes  are  too  narrow  to  prove  com- 
fortable in  such  work,  and  their  use  in  general  field  work  is  not 
recommended.  Another  style  of  boot,  however,  having  low  flat 
heels  and  wider  toes,  is  a  general  favorite  among  officers  whose 
work  involves  both  riding  and  walking.  If  these  are  worn  it 
is  suggested  that  they  be  made  to  order  and  a  good  fit  secured. 
The  cost  should  not  exceed  $10.00. 

The  regulation  stockman's  boot,  used  so  extensively  in  the 
West,  usually  has  a  fancy  stitched  17-inch  top,  stitched  sole, 
1^-  or  2-inch  heel,  and  a  pair  weighs  from  sixty  to  eighty  ounces. 
The  cost  per  pair  varies  from  $4.00  to  as  high  as  $30.00  or  $40.00, 
according  to  style  and  finish. 

Other  officers  prefer  ordinary  shoes  and  spiral  cloth  leggings. 
Contrary  to  a  general  belief,  these  leggings  are  not  uncomfortably 
warm.  They  originated  among  the  natives  of  East  India  and 
were  subsequently  adopted  by  the  British  Arm3^  Incidentally, 
where  walking  must  be  done,  they  prove  excellent  protection 


6     HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

against  snake  bites,  experiments  having  showTi  that  the  poison 
of  a  rattlesnake  will  not  penetrate  two  thicknesses  of  ordinary- 
blotting  paper.     The  cost  per  pair  should  not  exceed  $1.50. 

Moccasins. — Except  in  the  north  woods  of  Maine,  Wisconsin, 
and  Minnesota,  or  in  other  localities  where  conditions  render 
them  a  suitable  form  of  footwear,  these  should  be  supphed  only 
for  camp  use.  They  are  too  soft  and  offer  too  little  protection 
to  the  feet  to  prove  comfortable  in  general  field  use,  and  they 
are  especially  uncomfortable  when  used  in  riding.  They  may 
be  low  cut,  ankle  high  or  even  higher,  but  for  camp  use  the  low- 
cut  variety  is  recommended.  The  tan-colored,  twenty-ounce, 
single-tie  style  costs  from  seventy-five  cents  to  $3.00  per  pair. 

Rubber  Boots. — In  order  to  be  water-proof  these  must  neces- 
sarily be  air-proof,  and  for  that  reason  cannot  be  recommended 
for  field  use.  If  he  must  work  in  water  the  field  man  will  find 
common  leather  shoes  preferable  to  rubber  boots,  this  being 
especially  true  of  such  work  in  warm  weather. 

The  best  style  for  occasional  wear"  about  camp  has  rubberized 
duck  vamps,  rolled  sole,  weighs  about  sixty-four  ounces  per  pair, 
and  costs  from  $3.00  to  $6.00.  Hip-  or  thigh-boots  weigh  but 
Httle  more  and  cost  from  $4.75  to  $7.50  per  pair. 

Storm  Rubbers. — Ordinarily  the  field  man  has  neither  room 
in  his  pack  nor  use  in  his  work  for  storm  rubbers.  They  are 
only  useless  burdens  and  should  not  be  included  in  the  Hst  of 
footwear. 

Socks. — Medium-weight  woolen  socks  are  recommended  for 
both  summer  and  winter  wear,  and  for  the  same  reasons  that 
woolen  underwear  is  recommended.  It  not  infrequently  hap- 
pens, however,  that  such  footwear  proves  especially  unsatis- 
factory in  individual  cases,  and  in  such  event  the  field  man 
should  of  course  procure  whatever  style  of  socks  he  has  found 
most  satisfactory.  Woolen  socks  vary  in  price  from  twenty- 
five  cents  to  $1.00. 

Hose  Supporters. — Supporters  which  encircle  the  leg  at  or 
near  the  calf  should  be  avoided  if  continued  walking  is  to  be 
done.  Their  chief  disadvantage  Hes  in  the  fact  that  they  must 
be  drawn  so  close  about  the  leg  that  circulation  is  impeded  when 
it  should  be  especially  free  and  regular.  The  small  two-ended 
chp,  costing  ten  cents,  is  recommended  for  general  use.  If 
these  cannot  be  secured  the  socks  may  be  pinned  to  the  drawer 


EQUIPMENT  7 

HANDKERCHIEFS 

Nothing  in  this  Une  is  better  for  field  use  than  a  common  five- 
or  ten-cent  bandana.  Red  w411  be  found  preferable  to  blue,  as  the 
latter  fades  when  wet,  the  stain  being  removed  from  the  user's 
skin  only  vrith  difficulty. 

BEDDING 

Quilts,  comforters,  sheets,  and  pillows  are  unnecessary  articles 
of  bedding  for  field  use.  The  first  two  are  bulky  and  heavy,  are  no 
warmer  than  blankets  and  dry  very  slowly  when  wet;  furthermore 
they  seem  to  attract  moisture  and  always  feel  clammy  and  damp. 
Sheets  soon  become  grimy,  are  easily  torn,  and  do  not  add  ma- 
terially to  the  comfort  of  a  camp  bed.  A  coat,  sweater,  or  other 
clothing  may  be  rolled  up  and  used  for  a  pillow. 

A  very  comfortable,  durable,  and  easily  packed  bed  may  be 
had  by  the  use  of  one  four-pound  and  two  six-pound  double 
woolen  blankets  72  by  84  inches  in  size.  These  cost  from  $4.00 
to  S6.00  and  $6.50  to  $9.00,  respectively.  If  it  is  felt  that  such 
bedding  is  too  expensive  for  camp  use  horse  blankets  may  be 
used  as  a  substitute  and  -^-ill  prove  very  comfortable.  A  five- 
pound  blanket  76  by  80  inches  in  size  costs  about  $2.00;  one 
84  by  90  inches,  weighing  eight  pounds,  costs  about  $3.00;  and  a 
ten-pound  blanket  90  by  96  inches  costs  about  $3.50.  One  of 
each  should  be  secured,  dark  colors  being  preferred. 

TARPAULINS 

A  tarpaulin  is  used  as  protection  to  bedding  when  the  latter  is 
roUed  into  a  pack  or  made  dovm.  on  the  ground.  The  best  size  is 
11  by  15  feet,  or  the  same  size  as  a  regulation  wagon  "sheet" 
or  "cover."  It  should  be  of  not  less  than  eight-ounce  duck, 
would  weigh  approximately  ten  pounds  and  would  cost  about 
$4.00.  Ten-ounce  material,  same  size,  costs  about  $5.25,  and 
twelve-ounce  about  $6.50.  No  water-proof  blanket  need  be 
included  in  the  bedding  if  a  good  grade  of  tarpauhn  is  used. 
A  30-foot  3^-inch  manila  rope  is  long  enough  to  tie  the  bed  for 
packing  and  costs  from  thirty  to  fifty  cents. 

DUFFLE  BAGS 

Trunks,  suit  cases,  grips,  or  satchels  should  never  be  taken  on 
extended  camping  trips;  the  rough  usage  incident  to  packing  or 
to  other  forms  of  transportation  will  soon  destroy  them  and  call 


8     HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

for  the  purcliase  of  new  articles.  Aside  from  this  fact  they  are 
very  inconvenient  to  handle,  especially  if  packing  is  to  be  the 
means  of  transportation. 

Extra  clothing  and  other  personal  equipment  can  best  be 
carried  in  a  heavj'  canvas  bag  knowTi  as  a  ''duffle"  bag,  which 
can  be  purchased  from  any  firm  handUng  sporting  goods.  Such 
a  bag  is  fitted  with  a  canvas  loop  or  handle  at  one  end  and  with 
another  at  the  side;  the  top  has  an  inside  hood  supposed  to  be 
water-proof,  and  the  bag  is  fastened  shut  with  a  drawstring  or 
bar  lock  passed  through  the  eyelets  at  the  open  end.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  these  bags  are  usually  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  are  too  long  and  narrow  to  prove 
satisfactory  either  in  packing  or  unpacking  them. 

One  which  has  been  used  in  the  field  for  more  than  six  years, 
and  which  has  withstood  the  roughest  usage  and  given  complete 
satisfaction  in  every  respect,  was  made  to  order  for  $3.50.  It  is 
of  extra  heavy  canvas,  34  inches  deep,  22  inches  wide,  and  has 
an  extra  heavy  leather  bottom  riveted  through  the  canvas  into 
a  heavy  leather  inside  collar.  The  top  is  fitted  wath  a  pliant 
2-inch  leather  band  bearing  sixteen  ^-inch  eyelets.  A  /^le- 
inch  forged  D-ring  is  attached  to  a  leather  re-enforcement  on  one 
side  of  the  bag  6  inches  below  the  top,  and  a  second  similar  ring 
is  hkewise  attached  to  the  leather  bottom. 

A  2-inch  leather  strap,  fitted  with  a  heav\^  harness  snap  at 
either  end,  is  attached  to  the  two  rings  and  has  proven  very 
convenient  in  carrying  the  bag  or  attaching  it  to  a  pack-saddle. 
Except  at  the  open  end,  which  has  no  inside  hood,  the  bag  is 
absolutely  water-proof,  although  it  has  been  run  over  by 
wagons,  kicked  about  by  fractious  pack-animals,  and  otherwise 
been  given  the  most  severe  treatment.  It  is  fastened  shut  by 
means  of  a  buckskin  thong  passing  through  the  eyelets. 

In  filhng,  or  packing,  duffle  bags,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
place  hard  or  sharp  articles  immediately  against  the  canvas  sides, 
or  the  canvas  will  be  cut  or  worn  through. 

Small  articles  may  be  confined  in  smaller  canvas  bags  and  the 
latter  finaUy  packed  in  the  big  bag.  One  of  the  smaU  bags  may 
hold  pins,  needles,  thread,  thimble,  and  similar  articles;  another 
may  be  used  for  packing  tobacco,  pipes,  matches,  or  match 
cases;  and  a  small  medicine  kit  may  be  carried  in  still  another. 
These  small  bags  should  be  fitted  with  leather  drawstrings  and 
kept  closed  when  packed  in  the  duffle  bag. 


EQUIPMENT  9 

CANTINAS 

These  are  leather  bags  supplied  to  field  men  who  are 
to  do  considerable  riding.  They  are  made  in  pairs  and  are 
designed  to  be  carried  at  the  saddle  horn  or  fork.  Each  large  bag 
is  fitted  with  a  smaller  outer  bag  5  inches  wide,  8  inches  long, 
and  1  inch  deep.  The  large  bags  are  8^  inches  wide,  11  inches 
long,  and  33<4  inches  deep,  made  bellows  fashion  and  equipped 
with  10-inch  flaps  which  cover  both  the  large  and  small  bag 
and  which  are  made  to  buckle  down.  At  the  upper  edge  of 
the  flap  a  3,4-inch  strap  14  inches  long  buckles  across  into  the 
flap  of  the  other  bag  of  a  pair  and  serves  as  a  handle  by  which 
the  bags  may  be  carried  when  they  are  to  be  used  otherwise 
than  on  horseback.  Two  6-inch  straps,  set  1}4  inches  apart, 
also  connect  the  two  bags  and  hold  them  to  the  saddle  horn. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  A  FIELD   TRIP 

Clothing. — The  greatest  problem  involved  in  providing  cloth- 
ing for  a  field  trip  is  not  so  much  what  to  include  but  what  to 
exclude  from  the  baggage.  The  inexperienced  person  invariably 
burdens  himseK  with  a  large  amount  of  excess  baggage  which 
he  finds  later  is  of  no  use  to  him.  Meanwhile,  he  suffers  more  or 
less  inconvenience  in  transporting  it  about  from  place  to  place. 

It  is  of  course  utterly  impractical  to  compile  a  Hst  of  clothing  and 
then  declare  that  such  articles  are  sufiicient  and  that  no  others 
are  necessary  for  any  field  trip  and  regardless  of  all  conditions. 

It  is  possible,  however,  to  compile  a  Ust  suitable  for  given 
conditions  and  to  use  such  a  Ust  as  a  basis  for  determining 
approximately  what  equipment  may  be  needed  to  meet  other 
conditions  and  it  is  with  this  idea  in  view  that  the  following 
lists  are  suppHed.  It  is  assumed  that  the  work  to  be  done  is 
timber  cruising,  that  the  country  to  be  covered  varies  in  altitude 
from  one  thousand  to  six  or  seven  thousand  feet  and  hes  approxi- 
mately in  latitude  40°  north  and  that  the  work  is  to  be  done 
during  the  period  from  May  to  August.  Normal  cHmatic  con- 
ditions incident  to  such  work  would  justify  the  field  man  in 
providing  himself  with  about  the  following  clothing: 

Underwear. — Four  suits,  medium  weight,  woolen,  full  length, 
to  be  changed  often. 

Shirts. — Four,  medium  weight,  woolen,  good  grade. 

Trousers. — Three  pairs  of  denim  overalls. 


10    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Socks. — Twelve  pairs,  medium  weight,  woolen,  to  be  changed 
often  and  kept  in  good  repair. 

Shoes. — Two  pairs,  low,  flat  heels,  roomy  toes,  high  tops, 
capped,  hob-nailed  sole  and  heel  edges,  to  lace. 

Hat. — Soft  felt,  3-  or  3M-inch  flexible  brim,  4-  or  5-inch  crown. 

Coat. — Denim  jumper. 

Other  equipment  that  may  be  included  with  the  above  is : 

Handkerchiefs. — Three  bandanas,  preferably  red. 

Shoe  Laces. — Two  extra  pairs,  buckskin  or  lace  leather. 

Shoes. — One  pair,  low  cut,  soft,  for  camp  wear. 

Housewife. — Carrying  pins,  needles,  thread,  small  scissors, 
bachelor  buttons,  yarn  for  darning. 

Stationery. — Stamped  envelopes  and  paper  for  all  personal 
correspondence.  Official  correspondence  is  on  official  stationery 
and  is  covered  under  frank.     Paper  and  envelopes  are  supplied. 

The  toilet  set  should  include: 

Shaving  Outfit. 

Pocket  Comb. 

Pocket  Mirror. 

Six  Bars  Toilet  Soap. 

Two  Towels. 

Tooiji  Brush  and  Dentifrice. 

One  Extra  Pocket  Knife. 

It  may  seem  that  the  foregoing  fists  are  rather  limited,  but 
under  present-day  conditions  the  field  man  is  seldom  stationed 
so  far  from  country  stores  or  post-offices  that  he  is  unable  to 
purchase  or  order  any  extra  supplies  he  may  need. 

For  a  list  of  camp  bedding,  see  page  7.  Cots  are  not  recom- 
mended for  winter  use.  They  permit  such  free  circulation  of 
air  beneath  the  bed  that  practically  twice  as  much  bedding  is 
required  to  assure  comfort. 

Camp  suppHes  are  fisted  on  page  30,  and  cooking  utensils 
on  page  28. 

RIDING 

The  following  remarks  on  the  subject  of  riding  equipment 
are  not  offered  as  suggestions  to  experienced  horsemen;  their 
sole  aim  is  to  furnish  inexperienced  field  men  with  a  general  idea 
of  what  equipment  they  may  depend  upon  for  practical  results 
until  their  own  experience  will  enable  them  to  select  equipment 
more  in  accord  with  their  individual  tastes. 

Bridle. — This  should  be  fight  but  strong,  and  fancy  conchas, 


EQUIPMENT 


11 


heavy  rosettes  and  heavy  nose  pieces  and  superfluous  straps  and 
buckles  should  be  avoided.  Such  impedimenta  are  uncom- 
fortable in  extreme  weather,  and,  contrary  to  a  general  idea  among 
a  certain  class  of  horsemen,  do  not  add  to  the  real  value  of  nor 
contribute  favorably  to  the  appearance  of  a  bridle.  The  bridle 
may  or  may  not  be  fitted  with  a  brow  band  and  throat  latch, 
although  these  pieces  are  recommended  for  use  on  animals  that 
have  developed  the  habit  of  "rubbing  the  bridle,"  i.e.,  removing 
it  by  rubbing  against  a  tree,  post,  or  similar  object.     One  form 


Fig.  1.— Bridles. 


of  bridle  is  fitted  with  ear  holes  instead  of  a  brow  band,  but  in 
most  cases  does  not  prove  as  comfortable  or  effective  as  one 
with  a  brow  band. 

The  bridle  shown  at  the  left  of  Fig.  1  has  J^-inch  double 
cheeks,  ^-inch  throat  latch,  brow  band  and  curb  strap,  wide 
layer  crown  piece,  bar  buckles,  sewn-in  rings,  and  %-inch  reins 
6  feet  long.  It  weighs  approximately  thirty-six  ounces  and  can 
be  bought  for  $2.00  or  $2.50. 

The  one  shown  at  the  center  of  the  same  figure  is  made  of 
clarified  rawhide,  plaited  in  four  strands,  and  has  no  buckles  or 
rings,  the  cheek  pieces  being  regulated  by  adjustment  of  the 
side  loops.  It  weighs  ten  ounces  and  costs  from  $1.50  to  $2.00, 
without  the  reins  or  bit.  It  is  so  subject  to  stretching  when  wet 
and  shrinking  as  it  dries  that  it  will  not  give  satisfaction. 

A  side  view  of  an  ear  bridle  is  shown  at  the  right  in  the  same 


12 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


figure.  It  has  K-inch  cheeks  and  l-inch  spUt  crown,  weighs 
about  ten  ounces,  and  costs  $1.00  without  the  reins  or  bit. 

Horsehair  reins  and  headstalls  are  not  recommended  because 
the  loose  hair  ends  of  the  former  are  uncomfortably  rough  to 
the  rider's  bare  hands  and  of  the  latter  irritate  an  animal's  skin. 

Bit. — The  best  all-round  riding  bit,  and  one  that  can  safely 
be  recommended  for  general  field  work,  is  the  regulation  military 


Fig.  2.— Bits. 


curb  bit  showTi  at  a  in  Fig.  2.  It  weighs  sixteen  ounces  and  costs 
from  $1.75  to  $2.00.  Other  styles  of  bit  are  the  blued  Mexican 
curb,  shown  at  h  in  the  same  figure,  weighing  eleven  ounces  and 
costing  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents;  the  swivel  ring-bar 
bit,  shown  at  c,  weighing  seventeen  ounces  and  costing  $1.00; 
the  low  port  bit,  showTi  at  d,  bearing  a  roller,  weighing  fourteen 
ounces  and  costing  seventy-five  cents;  and  the  Kentucky  bar 
braced  racking  bit,  shown  at  e,  weighing  thirteen  ounces  and 
costing  fifty  cents.  It  is  especially  constructed  for  very  fight 
work.  The  wrought  port  mule  bit,  shown  at  /,  is  designed  for 
extra  hard  usage,  weighs  fifteen  ounces  and  costs  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  cents. 

Silver-mounted  or  engraved  bits  are  not  recommended.     They 


EQUIPMENT 


13 


are  usually  too  heavy  and  expose  an  animal's  mouth  to  too 
much  heat  or  frost  to  give  general  satisfaction. 

Hackamore. — This  is  merely  a  variety  of  Hght,  strong  halter 
used  chiefly  in  breaking,  training,  or  controlhng  saddle  animals. 
It  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  when  injuries  to  an  animal's 
mouth  prohibit  the  use  of  a  bit.  In  using  it  it  is  simply  hung  on 
an  animal's  head,  and  a  rope  which  has  been  tied  about  the 
animal's  neck  is  then  passed  through 
the  bozal,  indicated  at  a  in  Fig.  3, 
and  upward  to  the  rider's  hand.  If 
the  animal  is  to  be  trained  to  turn  to 
the  left  the  rope  may  be  pulled  stead- 
ily, or,  if  a  double  rein  is  being  used, 
the  right  rein  is  held  against  the  neck 
and  the  left  rein  is  pulled.  In  turning 
to  the  right  the  left  rein  is  drawn 
tightly  against  the  left  side  of  the  neck, 
while  the  right  rein  is  pulled.  In  this 
way  an  animal  is  soon  taught  to 
"neck  rein,"  and  after  the  bit  is  used 
no  pressure  against  it  is  required  in 
turning  the  animal.  The  hackamore 
shoTSTi  in  Fig.  3  is  of  rawhide  -v^-ith  a 
double-looped  bozal,  over  plaited  nose 
piece,  fiat  double-plaited  cheeks  and 
brow    band    and     adjustable     crown 

piece.  No  brow  band  is  necessary  in  most  instances.  Such  a 
hackamore  weighs  approximately  twelve  ounces  and  costs  from 
$3.50  to  So.OO. 

Saddle  Blanket. — The  most  satisfactory  blanket  that  can  be 
obtained  for  steady  riding  is  one  made  of  three  or  four  thick- 
nesses of  tow  or  "gunny"  sacks  carefully  cleaned  of  all  knots, 
bunches,  and  other  uneven  surfaces  and  sewn  together  around 
the  edges.  Such  a  blanket  should  be  about  1  inch  longer  and 
wider  than  the  under  surface  of  the  saddle  skirts.  When  wet 
with  perspiration  or  water  it  should  be  dried  in  the  shade  and 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  burrs,  twigs,  etc.,  are  not  allowed 
to  stick  to  either  side. 

Thickly  padded,  air-tight,  bunchy,  or  ribbed  blankets  should 
not  be  used.  A  very  thin  blanket  is  sufficient  under  a  properly- 
fitting  saddle,  and  if  the  saddle  fits  so  poorly  that  numerous 


Fig.  3. — Hackamore. 


14 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


extra  thicknesses  of   blanket  are  necessary  it  should  either  be 
discarded  or  rebuilt. 

Saddle. — This  is  a  question  upon  which  few  horsemen  agree, 
and  the  inexperienced  person  who  seeks  advice  from  them  may- 
expect  to  receive  as  many  difTerent  suggestions  as  the  number  of 
men  he  interviews. 

However,  a  saddle  having  about  the  following  specifications 
will  give  general  satisfaction  for  all- 
round  field  work  until  the    new   man 


Stock  saddle. 


Fig.  4. 


Military  saddle. 


learns  enough  about  the  subject  to  select  something  more  to 
his  own  taste: 

Tree. — 15-inch,    14-inch  swelled  steel  fork,   leather  -  covered 
steel  horn. 


g^^g       -<«iunnjBi»-     «-        Front 
Fig.  5. — Saddle-tree. 


Seat. — In  one  piece  with  the  jockeys  and  not  too  erect  in  the 
cantle. 

Skirts. — Wool-lined,  from  26  to  28  inches  by  12  to  14  inches, 
round  corners,  laced  to  tree. 


EQUIPMENT 


15 


Rig. — Double.  (This  particular  point  furnishes  more  ground 
for  contention  among  riders  than  any  other  single  one,  some 
declaring  in  favor  of  a  double  rig,  some  preferring  a  single  rig, 


Front 


Reai- 
Fig.  6. — Cinches. 

others  advocating  a  three-quarters  rig,  and  still  others  asserting 
that  a  five-eighths  rig  is  best.) 

Cinches. — Twenty  strand  Angora,  front;  33^-inch  belt  web, 
rear;  both  fitted  with  leather  chafes. 

Latigoes. — Off  side:     1%  inches  wide,  20  inches  long,  double 


Fig.  7. — Iron  stirrups. 

to  loop  through  ring  of  rig;  near  side:     1%  inches  wide,  7 
long,  punched  to  buckle  into  cinch  ring  or  cinch  buckle. 

Stirrup  Straps. — 2^  inches  wide,  to  buckle. 

Stirrups. — Steel,  leather-covered  and  lined. 

Fenders. — 9  by  16  inches. 

Tapaderas. — Short,  "monkey  nose,"  one  piece. 

Finish. — Plain. 

Weight. — Thirty  pounds. 

Cos^.— From  $30.00  to  $40.00. 


feet 


16    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Swelled  forks  are  preferable  to  straight  forks  on  account  of 
the  extra  thigh  grip  they  afford.     A  wide  flat  seat  will  prove 


Fig.  8. — Single  rig  seat  plate. 


Mule  Ear. 


Fig.  9. — Tapaderas. 


Fig.  10. — Saddle  horns. 

much  more  comfortable  than  a  high  narrow  one.     Steel  stirrups 
are  practically  indestructible,  will  outlast  any  ordinary  saddle. 


EQUIPMENT  17 

and  when  lined  with  leather  are  not  appreciably  hotter  or  colder 
than  wooden  stirrups.  Long  "mule-ear"  tapaderas  are  not  only 
a  source  of  useless  and  extra  weight,  but  are  even  troublesome  in 
thick  underbrush,  and,  contrary  to  a  prevalent  idea,  cannot  be 
thrust  forward  at  such  times  to  protect  a 
horse's  forelegs.  Cinch  buckles  facihtate 
fastening  and  unfastening  the  cinch  and, 
opinions  of  some  horsemen  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding,  do  not  break  any  oftener 
than  latigoes  and  cinch  rings.  In  attach- 
ing them  to  the  latigo  the  latter  is  run 
through  the  upper  sHt  from  the  rear,   back 

through  the  ring  in  the  rig  from  the  front,      ^ 

J  ^u  u    ^u      1  1-.      r   .1  Fig.   11.    —   Cinch 

then  do^Ti  through   the   lower   slit   of   the  buckle  with  chafe 

buckle  from  the  rear.     The  loose  end  of  the  attached, 

latigo  is  then  hung  up  in  the  loop  provided 
for  it  under  the  fork  or  just  back  of  the  cantle  edge  at  the  rear. 

Single  and  three-quarter  rigs  will  not  prove  satisfactory  for 
all-round  work;  they  are  designed  for  certain  forms  of  horse- 
back work  and  can  seldom  be  used  successfully  otherwise.  The 
rear  cinch  of  a  double  rig  seldom  need  be  used,  the  chief  advan- 
tage of  such  a  rig  being  the  location  of  the  front  ring. 

Deeply  engraved  or  hand-carved  trimmings  are  to  be  avoided. 
They  increase  the  cost  of  a  saddle  without  adding  to  its  prac- 
tical value  and  render  cleaning  and  oihng  more  difficult. 

Spurs. — These  are  almost  indispensable  when  w^estern-trained 
horses  are  to  be  ridden,  but  are  otherwise  an  unnecessary  part 
of  the  riding  equipment.  Three  general  styles  are  shc^wn  in 
Fig.  12.  The  one  indicated  at  a  is  best  suited  to  general  field 
work.  The  fork  or  counterpiece  should  be  at  least  ^-inch 
wide,  the  shank  should  be  not  less  than  2  inches  long,  and  the 
rowel  should  have  a  diameter  of  at  least  1^  inches.  Heavy 
silver  ornaments,  such  as  large  buttons,  bells,  knobs,  and  chains, 
not  only  fail  to  increase  the  practical  value  of  a  spur  but  also 
render  it  uncomfortably  heavy  and  unnecessarily  expensive.  A 
pair  of  spurs  similar  to  those  described  above  can  be  purchased 
for  S1.50  or  $2.00. 

Spur  straps  should  be  wide  enough  at  the  center  to  cover  the 
entire  instep.  If  laced  shoes  are  worn  narrow  straps  will  allow 
the  chaparejo  cuffs  to  cut  the  laces,  and  if  boots  are  worn  the 
cuffs  will  eventually  cut  through  the  insteps. 


18 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Other  spurs,  very  seldom  used  in  field  work,  are  shown  in 
the  same  figure.     A  "  heel  "  spur  is  shown  at  b  and  is  designed 


Fig.  12. — Spurs. 

to  be  screwed  into  the  boot  heel,  where  it  is  made  fast  by  means 
of  a  small  set  screw  beneath  the  rowel. 

The  "whip"  spur,  shown  at  c,  is  fitted  with  a  flat  band  through 
which  the  whip  butt  is  thrust.     A  spur  strap  is  shown  at  d. 

Quirt. — Ordinarily  the  field  man  need  not  burden  himself  with 
a  quirt,  but  if  an  unusually  vicious  animal  is  to  be  ridden  and 
can  not  be  well  controlled  with  the  reins  and  spurs  a  quirt  may 


•^^^^^^^^^^^^^^s^m 


Fig.  13. — Quirts. 


prove  of  considerable  advantage.  Two  styles  of  quirt  are  shown 
in  Fig.  13.  The  upper  one  is  of  plaited  rawhide  with  loaded  butt, 
weighs  from  twelve  to  sixteen  ounces,  and  costs  from  sixty  to 
seventy-five  cents.  The  lower  one  is  of  sewn  leather,  shot- 
loaded,  and  costs  about  fifty  cents. 

Chaparejos. — These  are  commonly  known  as  "shaps"  and  are 
indispensable  in  brushy  country,  where  a  rider's  legs  and  trousers 


EQUIPMENT 


19 


require  continual  protection.  Three  general  styles  are  shown 
in  Fig.  14.  For  all-round  work  the  ones  shown  at  a,  known  as 
"  Texas,"  or  "  bat-"  or  "  buzzard-wings,"  are  recommended. 
They  are  fitted  with  a  series  of  rings  and  snaps  which  hold  the 
legs  shut.     By  reason  of  the  fact  that  these  shaps  need  not  be 


Fig.  14. — Chaparejos. 


drawn  on  and  off  over  the  feet  but  may  be  unsnapped  at  the 
sides,  they  are  much  more  convenient  than  the  closed  leg  varie- 
ties. Furthermore,  if  spurs  are  worn,  these  need  not  be  re- 
moved if  the  shaps  are  to  be  laid  aside  temporarily.  Such  shaps 
should  be  of  oiled  leather  with  side  extensions  not  wider  than 
5  inches.  Five  rings  and  snaps  are  preferable  to  a  larger  number. 
The  weight  should  not  exceed  five  or  six  pounds  and  the  cost 
varies  from  $13.00  to  $15.00,  plain  finish. 

A  heavier  variety  of  these  shaps  is  made  for  use  in  extra 
brushy  country  and  for  corral  work,  where  the  rider's  thighs 
and  hips  are  subjected  to  constant  pressure  of  the  rope.  The 
belt  is  extra  wide  and  thick  and  the  legs  fasten  shut  from  the 
inside  with  loops  and  leather  buttons.  The  leather  is  extra 
heavy  and  stiff  and  the  price  runs  from  $18.00  to  $25.00,  plain 
finish. 

The  closed  leg  variety,  shown  at  h,  costs  from  $15.00  to  as 
much  as  the  purchaser  wishes  to  pay  for  extra  fancy  style  and 
finish. 


20    HANDBOOK  FOR  HANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

The  hair  front  variety,  shown  at  c,  can  not  be  recommended 
for  any  kind  of  field  work.  They  are  not  only  heavier  than  the 
plain  leather  varieties,  but  are  also  very  unsatisfactory  in  brushy 
country,  where  the  hair  is  continually  hanging  and  being  torn 
out.  Moreover,  in  stormy  weather,  the  hair  catches  and  holds 
rain,  snow,  or  sleet  and  the  shaps  soon  become  too  heavy  for 
comfort.  The  cost  runs  from  $15.00  to  as  high  as  the  purchaser 
wishes  to  pay  for  finish. 

PACKING 

In  most  parts  of  the  West,  where  travel  facilities  are  usually 
more  or  less  Umited,  supphes  and  equipment  must  often  be 
transported  from  place  to  place  by  means  of  pack-animals,  but 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  South  and  Southeast  trans- 
portation is  by  means  of  wagons.  It  is  therefore  advisable  for 
the  camper  or  woodsman  to  ascertain  previously  whether  or 
not  he  will  have  use  for  a  pack  outfit  in  the  section  be  expects 
to  enter. 

PACK-SADDLE 

Muley. — This   style    of    pack-saddle  derives  its  name  from 

the  construction  of  its  forks,  illustrated  in  Fig.  15.     They  are 

rounded  off  at  the  top,   and  ropes  or  other 

fastenings  are  passed  through  under  the  bow. 

Mexican   packers   of   the  Southwest,  who 

often  construct  their  own  pack-saddles,  hew 

these  forks  from   the   crotches   of   hmbs  of 

some    tough    wood    such    as    Gambel    oak 

^^'''mule~^°'^a  k^       (Quercus    Gamhelli)    or    Arizona    white-oak 

saddle  (^-   -^fizonica) .     These   are   then   nailed    or 

bolted  securely  to  the  saddle-bars  and  the 

whole  is  usually,  though  not  always,  covered  with  rawhide. 

Cross-Tree. — This  saddle  has  forks  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  16, 
although  the  rounded  opening  beneath  the  cross  may  not  appear 
in  some  varieties.  Ropes  may  be  passed  around  or  through 
such  forks,  and  in  either  case  will  not  work  off  unless  loosened. 
The  cross-tree  saddle  is  recommended  for  field  work. 

Combination. — Another  form  of  tree  seldom  used  in  packing  is 
a  combination  pack  and  riding  tree,  but  this  is  not  recommended 
for  any  field  use  whatever.  The  cross-tree  affords  much  better 
facilities  for  fastening  the  pack  to  the  saddle,  weighs  only  about 


EQUIPMENT 


21 


six  pounds,  and  can  be  bought  for  $1.50;  the  combination  tree 
weighs  twelve  pounds  and  costs  $3.50.  For  illustration  of  pack- 
saddle  parts  (cross-tree)  see  Fig.  18. 

Parts. — In  order  to  present  a  more  definite  idea  of  what  the 


Cross  tree  pack  saddle. 


Fig.  16. 


Fork  of  cross  tree  pack  saddle. 


Fig.  17. — Combination  pack  and  riding  saddle-tree. 


best  form  of  pack-saddle  should  be,  specifications  of  each  part 
are  given  as  follows : 

Breeching. — This  should  be  of  ordinary  3-inch  back-band 
web  with  13^-inch  side  and  hip  straps.  To  be  most  effective 
both  the  latter  should  be  lengthened  till  the  breeching  works 
below  the  points  of  the  hips  rather  than  close  up  under  the  root 
of  the  tail.     Such  breeching  costs  about  $1.00. 

Breast  Collar. — The  body  of  the  breast  collar  should  also  be 
of  3-inch  back-band  web  and  fitted  with  13-:4-inch  leather  side 
straps.  If  the  latter  are  left  long  enough  to  allow  the  collar 
to  fall  too  far  below  the  points  of  the  shoulders  the  animal  will 
experience  more  or  less  difficulty  in  travehng.  If  allowed  to 
work  above  the  shoulder  points  it  may  cause  the  animal  to 
choke  dowTi  when  steep  grades  are  ascended.  Proper  regulation 
will  allow  it  to  work  just  below  the  points  of  the  shoulders.  If 
necessary  a  strap  may  be  fastened  from  one  side  strap  over  the 


22 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


animal's  neck  to  the  other.     The  cost  of  such  a  collar  is  about 
$1.00. 

Cinches. — The  best  cinches  for  all-round  work  are  of  4-inch 


Breeching. 


Breast  collar. 


Fig.  18. 


Cinch. 
-Pack-saddle  parts. 


folded  canvas  fitted  with  a  forged  ring  in  each  end.  If  rear 
cinches  are  to  be  used  they  should  be  made  of  the  same  material. 
The  cost  is  about  sixty-five  cents. 

Latigoes. — These  may  be  known  as  "  tie  straps  "  and  are  used 
in  connecting  the  cinches  to  the  rigging.  They  should  be  not  less 
than  33^  feet  long  and  1}4  inches  wide,  and  should  be  made  to 
tie  rather  than  buckle.  They  cost  about  twenty-five  cents 
each. 

Rig. — The  rigging  of  any  saddle  is  that  part  into  which  the 
cinches  are  fastened  by  means  of  the  latigoes.  They  may  be 
either  single  or  double  in  pack-saddles,  the  one  providing  for  only 
one  cinch,  the  other  for  two.     They  should  be  well  looped  about 


EQUIPMENT 


23 


the  forks  and  securely  nailed  to  the  saddle  bars.     The  single 
rig  costs  seventy-five  cents,  the  double  $1.25. 

Full-Rigged  Saddle. — A  single  rig,  cross-tree  pack-saddle, 
burro  size,  with  13^-inch  rig,  wrapped  about  the  forks  and 
nailed  to  the  bars,  134-inch  latigoes,  3-inch  back-band  web, 
breeching  of  the  same  material  with  1%-  or  IM-inch  leather 


Fig.  19. — FuU-rigged  pack-saddle.     (Single  rig.) 

side  straps,  and  4-inch  folded  canvas  cinches,  weighs  approxi- 
mately nine  pounds  and  can  be  purchased  for  from  $4.50  to 
$6.00;  double-rigged  it  weighs  ten  pounds  and  costs  about  $6.00 
to  $7.00;  horse  size,    double    rig,    costs    about 
$8.00. 

Lash  Rope  and  Cinch. — These  are  used  in 
fastening  the  top  pack  to  the  saddle.  The  cinch 
should  be  of  4-inch  folded  canvas  fitted  at  one 
end  with  a  forged  ring  and  at  the  other  with 
an  iron  lash  hook.  Together  with  30  feet  of 
3/2-inch  manila  rope  it  can  be  purchased  for 
about  $1.75. 

Panniers. — These  are  heavy  canvas  bags  equipped  with 
leather  loops  to  hang  over  the  saddle  forks.  They  are  con- 
venient receptacles  in  which  to  pack  small  loose  articles,  but 
are  by  no  means  absolutely  essential  to  a  pack  outfit  and  are 
not  recommended  for  general  field  use.  The  loops  soon  wear  out 
or  break,  the  canvas  tears  or  wears  through,  and  continual  re- 
pairing soon  becomes  necessary.      Ordinary  "gunny"  sacks  or 


Fig.  20. — Lash 
hook. 


24    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

heavy  flour  or  feed  sacks  will  serve  the  purpose  as  well,  and  when 
badly  worn  or  damaged  may  be  discarded  without  loss.  Instead 
of  being  attached  to  the  saddle  by  means  of  loops  these  are 
fastened  with  a  gi'ain  hitch.     (See  Packing,  p.  147.) 

ANIMAL 

Halters.— These  should  be  suppHed  for  work-  and  saddle- 
animals  if  the  nature  of  the  field  work  requires  them  to  stand 
tied  for  extended  intervals.  They  may  be  of  leather  or  rope  or 
may  consist  simply  of  a  tie  rope. 

Leather. — The  best  halter  for  field  use  is  made  of  IK-inch 
flat  leather,  fitted  with  squares  where  the  cheeks  support  the 


LEATHER 


Fig.  21. — Halters. 


nose  piece  and  bozal  and  with  rings  where  the  crown  and  cheeks 
meet.  One  end  of  the  throat  latch  is  sewed  into  the  off  ring 
and  the  other  end  is  fitted  with  a  snap  to  hook  into  the  near  ring. 
The  crowTi  and  bozal  have  buckles  to  permit  lengthening  or 
shortening  or  opening  or  closing  the  head-stall,  while  the  cheeks 
and  the  off  end  of  the  crown  piece  are  sewed  into  the  rings  which 
carry  the  throat  latch.  One  end  of  the  tie  rope  should  be 
fitted  with  a  substantial  snap  to  hook  into  the  chin  ring,  and 
the  other  end  should  be  tightly  wTapped  with  fine  wire  or  heavy 
cord.  Such  a  halter,  together  with  the  tie  rope,  costs  about 
$1.25.    See  a  in  Fig.  21. 


EQUIPMENT 


25. 


Ro-pe. — A  ready-made  halter  of  jute,  cotton,  or  hemp  can  be 
bought  for  fifty  cents.  The  crown  and  cheeks  are  in  one  piece, 
while  the  nose  piece,  bozal,  and  tie  rope  are  in  another.  Such  a 
halter  is  light,  strong,  and  serviceable,  provided  the  animal  to 
be  tied  is  faii-ly  gentle  and  well  trained.  Its  chief  disadvantage 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  can  be  easily  slipped  if  accidentally  hung 
over  a  post,  snag,  or  similar  object. 

If  a  rope  halter  must  be  made  in  the  field,  a  3^-inch  cotton 
rope  12  feet  long  should  be  used.  An  ej^e  splice  is  made  in  one 
end  of  this  and  the  other  end  is  passed  through  it  to  form  the 
nose  piece  and  bozal.  The  cheek  and  crown  piece  should  be  cut 
long  enough  to  reach  from  back  of  the  animal's  ears  down  either 
side  of  the  head  to  a  point  about  2  inches  above  the  mouth. 
Ordinarily  it  will  be  from  28  to  36  inches  long  after  it  is  spliced 
into  the  other  rope,  one  end  being  spUced  in  about  6  inches 
from  the  eye  spHce  and  the  other  some  6  or  8  inches  farther 
along.  The  material  required  for  such  a  halter  costs  about 
twenty-five  cents.     See  h  in  Fig.  21.     For  splices,  see  p.  335. 

Tie  Rope. — This  should  be  of  i^-inch  cotton  rope,  10. feet 
long,  and  fitted  with  a  harness  snap  spliced  into  one  end,  the 
other  end  being  wrapped  wath  fine  wire  or  heavy  cord  or 
else  knotted  in  a  Turk's  head.  See  Knots,  p.  325.  An  iron 
band,  bearing  an  eye-screw,  and  especially  designed  for  the  pur- 
pose, is  then  fitted  to  the  rope  at  a  point  far  enough  from  the 
snap  to  allow  the  snap  to  be  hooked  into  the  eye  after  the  rope 
has  been  placed  about  the  animal's  neck.  The  rope  will  cost 
ten  cents  and  the  iron  band  as  much  more.     See  c,  Fig.  21. 

Hobbles. — A  single  hobble,  sometimes  known  as  a  "  picket  " 
hobble,  and  a  pair  of  double 
hobbles  are  illustrated  in  Fig. 
22.  They  are  for  use  in  tying 
an  animal's  legs  together,  and 
thus  prevent  it  from  straying 
too  far  from  camp.  All  should 
be  of  13^2-inch  leather  with  2- 
inch  single  strap  hning  and 
equipped  with  chains  and  swiv- 
els. A  picket  hobble  weighs 
about  one  pound  and  costs 
$1.00  or  $1.25;  double  hobbles  weigh  approximately  thirty 
ounces  and  cost  the  same  as  picket  hobbles. 


DouWe  HdlJHe 


^ickoCBobHlo 


Fig.  22. 


26 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Picket  Pin  and  Rope. — When  neither  halter  nor  hobbles  are 
available  an  animal  may  be  "  picketed  "  out  to  graze.  The 
picket  pin  and  rope  shown  in  Fig. 
23  cost  about  $1.00.  For  general 
purposes  the  rope  should  be  not  less 
than  30  feet  long  and  fitted  with  a 
strong  snap  at  either  end  to  facili- 
tate fastening  it  into  and  removing 
it  from  the  pin  or  hobble.  The  pin 
should  be  15  inches  long,  and 
equipped  with  a  swivel  link  at  the 
upper  end. 
Feed  Bags. — These  are  known  as 
"  morrals"  in  the  West  and  Southwest,  where  the  camp  equip- 
ment is  not  complete  without  them.  They  are  fitted  with  a 
crown  piece,  and  after  the  grain  is  placed  in  them  are  suspended 
from  the  animal's  head.  It  soon  learns  to  lower  its  head  and 
allow  the  bag  to  rest  on  the  ground  so  that  the  grain  may  be 
reached. 

Only  the  best  grades  should  be  used.     These  are  of  heavy 
cotton  duck  or  canvas,  are  double  sewed  and  riveted,  have 


Fig.  23. — Picket  pin 
and  rope. 


Fig.  24. — ISIorrals. 


heavy  leather  bottoms,  lower  waUs  and  ventilators,  and  the 
crowTi  piece  is  of  leather.  They  weigh  approximately  thirty 
ounces  and  cost  about  $1.50  each.  See  a  in  Fig.  24.  An  im- 
provised morral  made  from  a  gunny  sack  is  shown  at  h.  This 
can  best  be  made  by  seizing  one  upper  corner  of  the  sack,  stand- 


EQUIPMENT  27 

ing  on  the  corresponding  lower  corner,  thrusting  a  knife-blade 
through  both  sides  of  the  sack  and  ripping  them  out  to  the 
end.  The  blade  should  be  thrust  through  the  sack  at  a  point 
about  2  inches  in  from  the  edge,  as  the  sack  is  flattened,  and 
14  inches  from  the  bottom.  The  bag  is  shown  at  5,  the  pieces 
1  and  2  are  tied  together  and  serve  as  a  crown  piece,  and  the 
pieces  3  and  4  are  tied  together  snugly  about  the  animal's  jaws 
or  thrust  under  the  cheek  pieces  to  prevent  loss  of  grain  by  spill- 
ing if  the  animal  tosses  its  head  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the  grain. 

Bells. — Animals  should  be  belled  when  turned  out  to  graze  at 
night  or  dui'ing  times  when  they  are  not  to  be  used.  Some  of 
them  stray  to  a  considerable  distance  from  camp  even  when  hob- 
bled, and  unless  bells  are  provided  more  or  less  trouble  will  be 
had  in  finding  them. 

The  best  camp  bells  are  the  small  ordinary  cow  bells  gener- 
ally kno^vTi  as  "  horse  "  bells.  Size  No.  5  is  S%  inches  high 
and  has  a  mouth  2;^  by  3  inches.  It  costs  twenty  cents.  Black 
leather  bell  collars  2  inches  wide  cost  about  forty  cents.  Usually 
one  bell  to  every  three  or  four  animals  will  prove  sufficient. 

Combs  and  Brushes. — These  should  always  be  included  in  the 
field  equipment  if  horses  are  to  be  worked  or  ridden.     Two  styles 


Fig.  25. — Curry-combs  and  brush. 

of  combs  are  shown  in  Fig.  25.  The  one  shown  at  a  is  recom- 
mended for  general  field  use.  It  is  circular,  of  spring  steel,  and 
bears  three  complete  circles  which  work  independently  on  each 
other  and  which  are  attached  to  an  iron  back  by  a  hinge  joint. 
The  handle  may  be  of  wood  or  leather.     It  is  strong  and  com- 


28    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

pact,  will  stand  the  hardest  kind  of  treatment,  and  costs  about 
twenty-five  cents. 

The  comb  shown  at  b  is  especially  unsatisfactory  for  field  use. 
The  bars  and  teeth  soon  become  bent,  the  handle  takes  up  as 
much  room  as  the  comb  and  may  soon  work  loose  or  break, 
and  the  shank  may  be  bent,  broken,  or  otherwise  damaged  in 
packing.  The  cost  is  ten  cents.  The  brush  showTi  at  c  has  a 
heayy  wooden  back  3  inches  wide  and  8  inches  long  with  India 
fiber  brush  1 3^  inches  long.  It  costs  twenty-five  cents  and  should 
be  included  in  the  field  equipment  even  if  there  is  no  room  for 
the  comb. 

COOKING 

For  Stations. — For  permanent  stations  or  camps,  the  follow- 
ing cooking  equipment  will  be  found  very  convenient.  The  fist 
is  rather  elaborate  for  field  work,  but  where  the  field  man  need 
not  pack  his  kit  about  from  place  to  place  he  will  find  too  many 
utensils  preferable  to  too  few ;  furthermore,  he  may  have  occa- 
sion to  prepare  meals  for  visitors  or  for  local  residents  who 
may  call  on  business: 

Approximate 
Article  Capacity  Cost 

1  Dishpan 18      quarts  $0. 50 

1  Coffee-pot 4      quarts  .  50 

1  Tea-kettle 6      quarts  .  40 

1  Double  boiler 1}4  quarts  .  40 

1  AVater  pail 12      quarts  .  40 

3  Straight  kettles 7      quarts  2.80 

2  Pudding  pans 3  M  quarts  .  50 

2  Bake  pans 4      quarts  .  35 

1  Cup 1      quart  .  15 

1  Ladle }4  quart  .  05 

1  Dipper H  quart  .  05 

1  Bread-raiser 8     quarts  .80 

1  Colander 4     quarts  .  25 

1  Frying  pan .35 

Total $7 .  50 

His  dinner  set  should  include: 

4  Cups  and  saucers $0 .  50 

6  Plates .75 

3  Bowls,  8-inch .45 

6  Knives  and  forks,  iron  handles .75 

6  Teaspoons .15 


EQUIPMENT  29 

Artivip  Approximate 

Article  (^^g^ 

3  Tablespoons $0 .  15 

1  Soup  spoon .15 

1  Sugar  bowl .40 

1  Salt  and  pepper  shaker .35 

1  Meat  platter .50 

1  Vegetable  dish .60 

Total $4.75 

Other  utensils  to  be  used  about  the  kitchen  should  be: 

1  Garbage  bucket IS  quarts  $1 .  25 

1  AVash  basin .25 

1  Soap  dish  and  grate .10 

3  Glass  jars 2  quarts  .30 

1  Bread  box,  8  by  10  by  20  inches .25 

1  Butcher  knife ,25 

1  Can  opener .15 

Total S2.55 

Total  cost  of  cooking  outfit $14 .  80 

All  dishes  should  be  of  granite  or  enamelware;  the  cook  stove 
should  be  No.  8,  four  holes,  iron  top,  and  wood  or  coal  grate, 
and  is  generally  furnished  upon  requisition.  Costs  given  are 
for  enamelware. 

For  Temporary  Camp. — Two  men  on  a  camping  trip  should 
provide  themselves  with  the  following  cooking  utensils: 

1  Dutch  oven  with  hd.  2  Tablespoons. 

1  Bucket,  galvanized,  18  quarts  1  Kettle,  straight,  10  quarts. 

1  Bucket,  galvanized,  14  quarts.  1  Kettle,  straight,  6  quarts. 

1  Cup,  1  quart.  1  Canteen,  gallon. 

2  Cups,  1  pint.  1  Combination    can    and    bottle 

4  Plates.  opener. 

1  Butcher  knife.  1  Frying  pan. 

2  Table  knives  and  forks. 

The  Dutch  oven  is  a  low,  flat,  heavy  iron  kettle  for  use  over 
camp  fires  or  Uve  coals.  The  average  size  is  about  10  inches 
in  diameter  and  from  2  to  3  inches  deep.  It  is  fitted  with  three 
substantial  legs  and  a  short,  heaw  handle.  The  Hd  is  fitted  with 
a  raised  edge  or  rim  designed  to  hold  Hve  coals  and  supply  heat 
from  the  top.  Other  vessels  of  the  kit  should  be  granite  or 
enamelware;  knives  and  forks  should  have  iron  handles  and 
spoons  should  be  of  tin. 

Such  a  kit  weighs  about  twenty-five  pounds  and  costs  about 
$5.00.     It  can  be  most  conveniently  packed  by  dividing  it  into 


30 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


three  parts:  The  plates,  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  are  carried 
in  the  Dutch  oven,  the  smaller  bucket  and  the  kettles  and  cups 
are  carried  in  the  large  bucket,  and  the  frying  pan  is  carried 
separately. 

PROVISIONS 

While  the  following  Usts  of  provisions,  compiled  for  one  man 
for  thirty  days,  must  be  accepted  as  including  only  approximate 
amounts,  they  will  be  of  assistance  to  the  new  man  when  he  must 
lay  in  a  supply  of  such  articles.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
also  that  a  variety  of  food  which  appeals  to  one  person  may  not 
suit  another  and  that  personal  tastes  must  therefore  be  con- 
sidered in  making  out  a  bill  of  supplies  based  on  these  lists: 


For  Stations 

Baking  powder 1  poTind 

Beans 5  pounds 

Butter 3  pounds 

Canned  fruit 10  quarts 

Catsup 1  quart 

Cereals 4  pounds 

Coffee 3  pounds 

Dried  fruit 5  pounds 

Eggs 3  dozen 

Flour 30  pounds 

Lard 5  pounds 

Meal 2  poimds 

Meat,  salt 8  pounds 

Milk,  canned 10  quarts 

Pepper 2  oiinces 


Pickles 2  quarts 

Potatoes 25  pounds 

Rice 2  pounds 

Salt 2  pounds 

Soda 8  ounces 

Spices 1  pound 

Sugar 10  pounds 

Tea 8  ounces 

MlSCELL.\NEOUS 

Matches,  1  box,  1,000 

Soap,  laundry 2  bars 

Soap,  toUet 2  bars 

Tobacco 


For  Temporary  Camps. — Two  men  expecting  to  be  in  camp 
for  fifteen  days  should  provide  themselves  with  the  following: 


Baking  powder 1  pound 

Beans 10  povmds 

Butter 2  pounds 

Canned  fruit 8  quarts 

Coffee 4  pounds 

Dried  fruit 3  poxuids 

Flour 35  pounds 

Lard 10  pounds 


Meat,  salt 10  pounds 

JMilk,  canned 8  quarts 

Pepper 4  ounces 

Potatoes 20  pounds 

Rice 2  pounds 

Salt 2  pounds 

Sugar 8  pounds 


It  is  also  well  to  include  ten  or  a  dozen  candles  in  this  list. 
This  supply  of  provisions,  together  with  the  cooking  outfit, 
hobbles,  picket  ropes,  or  extra  pack  ropes,  and  bedding  for  two 
men,  can  be  carried  on  one  pack-animal. 


CONSTRUCTION  WORK 

TELEPHONE   LINES 

GeneraL — Telephone  lines  are  built  and  maintained  by  the 
Forest  Service  chiefly  as  a  means  of  quicker  communication 
between  different  officers'  headquarters  or  between  such  head- 
quarters and  lookout  points.  The  actual  work  of  construction 
and  maintenance,  invariably  affected  by  local  conditions,  is  car- 
ried on  under  specific  instructions  from  the  proper  office  and 
for  that  reason  cannot  be  discussed  in  detail  here.  A  few  gen- 
eral rules  of  construction  are  given,  however,  merely  as  guides 
for  inexperienced  men  engaged  in  this  work. 

Costs. — Local  conditions  affect  this  problem  to  such  a  degree 
that  it  is  impossible  to  offer  any  definite  suggestions  concerning 
cost  estimates.  Such  items  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  to  be 
worked  over,  local  sources  of  supply,  transportation  facilities, 
the  number  of  "  poles  in  place,"  the  ease  or  difficulty  with  which 
other  poles  may  be  secured  and  set,  the  amount  of  swamping 
to  be  done,  and  the  best  camp  sites  available,  all  affect  the  ques- 
tion of  costs.  Lines  have  been  built,  where  no  swinging  insu- 
lators were  used,  for  as  low  as  $20.00  per  mile.  A  general  state- 
ment of  costs  in  such  cases  is  about  as  follows:  ^ 

No.  9  wire $11 .  00 

Insulators,  pony,  glass 1 .  05 

Brackets 60 

Spikes 25 

Labor 7 .  10 

Total $20.00 

Preliminary  Survey. — This  is  made  before  actual  construction 
begins.  The  proposed  route  to  be  followed  should  be  marked 
with  stakes  set  at  points  where  poles  are  to  be  set,  and  these  stakes 
should  bear  any  information  required  by  the  workmen  for  proper 
setting  of  the  poles.  It  may  not  be  advisable  to  follow  this  sur- 
vey in  all  instances,  and  deviations  are  permissible  if  circum- 
stances demand  them. 

1  Supplied  by  Forest  Ranger  Perry,  Special  Detail  on  Telephone 
Construction,  Carson  National  Forest. 

31 


32    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Location. — Location  of  telephone  lines  should  be  determined 
by  the  following  factors: 

(1)  The  shortest  and  most  direct  route  practicable. 

(2)  Possibihties  of  following  roads  or  trails  in  order  that 
first  cost  of  construction  and  subsequent  cost  of  maintenance 
may  be  kept  at  a  minimum. 

(3)  Best  points  for  connection  with  desired  points  not  on 
the  main  line  or  with  points  of  possible  future  importance. 

(4)  Avoidance  of  canyons  and  streams  exceeding  500  feet  in 
width;  also  of  power  transmission  or  electric  light  lines.  Tele- 
phone Unes  should  not  parallel  high-power  transmission  lines 
nearer  than  3^  mile. 

(5)  The  accessibihty  of  detours  necessary  to  avoid  bad 
country  or  scarcity  of  pole  material. 

(6)  The  advantage,  if  any,  of  increased  expense  for  material 
over  one  route  as  compared  with  increased  cost  of  labor  over 
another. 

(7)  Possibilities  of  future  patrol  of  the  hne  as  affected  b^i 
present  or  proposed  bridle  trails  the  entire  length  of  the  hne. 

(8)  Possibility  of  securing  rights-of-way  across  private 
lands.  1 

Equipment. — Equipment  for  the  Uneman  consists  of  a  pair  of 
8-inch  side-cutting  pliers,  a  pair  of  reversible  connectors,  a  light 
ax  with  a  16-inch  handle,  a  safety  belt  and  strap,  a  pair  of  hooks 
or  chmbers,  and  two  Buffalo  grips  with  24  feet  of  3^-inch  rope. 
Swampers  should  carry  4-pound  double-bitted  axes,  whetstones, 
and  8-inch  files.  If  required  to  do  any  climbing,  they  should  be 
supplied  with  hooks  and  safety  belt  and  strap. 

Transportation. — This  is  not  a  serious  problem  if  wagons  can 
be  used,  but  is  more  difficult  if  pack-animals  are  required.  No.  9 
galvanized  iron  wire,  which  is  the  standard  wire  used  by  the 
Forest  Service,  is  put  up  in  3^-mile  coils  weighing  one  hundred 
and  sixty  pounds  each.  If  it  is  to  be  packed  all  the  ties  except 
one  are  cut,  and  this  one  is  re-enforced,  the  coil  is  opened  in  half, 
and  two  men  can  then  drop  it  down  over  a  pack-saddle,  one- 
half  on  either  side.  It  should  be  tied  securely  to  the  saddle 
and  not  allowed  to  work  loose.  Insulators  and  spikes  may  be 
packed  in  feed  sacks  or  panniers.     Brackets  may  be  strung  on 


1  Verbal  permission  will  not  suffice.     The  concession  must  be  drawn 
up  in  regular  form  on  blanks  supplied  for  the  purpose. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  33 

wires,  about  twenty-five  to  a  wire,  each  bundle  weighing  ap- 
proximately sixteen  pounds.  These  may  be  tied  to  the  saddle 
without  difficulty. 

Two  pack-animals  are  required  in  packing  poles.  The  regular 
size  poles  may  be  packed  in  pairs  and  should  be  fastened  high 
up  on  the  saddle,  the  animals  working  tandem  fashion  one  at 
either  end  of  and  between  the  poles.  Short  sharp  curves  must 
be  avoided,  as  the  animals  will  not  be  able  to  pass  around  them. 
Extra  long  heavj^  poles  must  be  packed  separately  and  should 
be  securely  fastened  to  the  tops  of  the  saddles.  Burros  will  be 
found  preferable  to  horses  for  packing,  since  the  latter  usually 
carry  their  heads  too  high  and  are  much  more  Ukeiy  to  become 
excited  in  case  of  accidents. 

Right-of-Way  Clearance. — Rights-of-way  through  timber  or 
brush  should  be  wide  enough  to  provide  free  access  of  mounted 
patrolmen  over  the  entire  length  of  the  line.  Dead  or  leaning 
timber  that  may  fall  across  the  Hne  and  all  branches  which  may 
touch  or  hang  close  to  the  wire  should  be  removed.  Rubbish 
and  slash  resulting  from  such  removal  should  be  carefully  dis- 
posed of  in  order  to  lessen  the  fire  daiiger. 

POLES 

Material. — The  best  poles  obtainable  are  of  cedar,  such  as  red 
cedar  (Juniperus  Virginiana),  Western  red  cedar  (/.  occidentalis), 
one-seed  juniper  (/.  monosperma) ,  rock  cedar  or  mountain  juni- 
per (J.  sabinoides),  Cahfornia  juniper  (/.  Californica),  and  Utah 
juniper  (J.  Utahensis) ,  although  the  last  named  seldom  reaches 
a  height  sufficient  for  standard  poles.  Alligator  or  checkered 
bark  juniper  (/.  pachyphlcea)  is  widely  used  in  the  Southwest 
for  fence  posts,  and  is  abo  frequently  used  for  telephone  poles 
when  it  is  found  tall  and  straight  enough  for  this  purpose. 
However,  it  is  too  light  and  brittle  to  make  durable  poles. 

Red  Douglas  fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia),  also  knowTi  as  Douglas 
spruce,  is  also  quite  durable  and  as  a  rule  can  be  easily  obtained 
throughout  most  parts  of  the  Rocky  ]\Iountain'  regions.  Fire- 
killed  poles  of  sugar  pine  (Pinus  Lamhertiana) ,  obtainable  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  Northwest,  and  of  Rocky  Mountain  white 
pine  or  limber  pine  (P.  flexilis),  found  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  are  almost  as  durable  as  cedar,  and  gen- 
erally possess  the  advantage  of  being  already  peeled  and  sea- 


34    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

soned  at  the  time  they  are  cut.  Bald  cypress  {Taxodium  dis- 
tichum),  also  known  as  deciduous  cypress,  sassafras  (Sassafras 
sassafras),  locust  {Rohinia  pseudacacia) ,  white  oak  (Quercus  alba), 
post  oak  (Q.  minor),  chinquapin  (Q.  acuminata),  and  black  walnut 
{Juglans  nigra),  all  common  to  the  South  and  Southeast,  are 
likewise  durable  and  make  good  poles.  Redwood  {Sequoia  sem- 
pervirens),  occurring  near  the  Pacific  Coast  in  southwestern 
Oregon  and  northwestern  California,  also  makes  durable  poles. ^ 
Dimensions. — The  following  table  shows  the  dimensions  that 
have  proven  the  most  satisfactory: 

Length,  in  Feet 18       22^      25  30       35       40  45 

Top  Diameter,  Inches 5         5         5.5         6         6         6.5         7 

2  Length  of  standard  Forest  Service  pole. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  obtain  poles  having  exactly  these 
dimensions,  but  the  table  will  serve  as  a  general  guide  and  should 
be  followed  as  closely  as  possible. 
-Root  Preparation. — Only     the     straightest    timber 

should  be  selected,  and  if  dead  must  be  perfectly 
sound.     Poles  that  are  to  be  used  in  supporting 
extra  long  heavy  spans  of  wire  or  which  may  oth- 
erwise be  subjected  to  severe  strain  should  be 
of  the  very  best    quahty    of    material    obtain- 
able.    The  best  time  for  cutting  is  when   the 
sap  is  "  down  "  or  during  the  winter  months, 
the  poles  being  peeled  as  soon  as   cut   and    all 
large    knots,    splinters,  and   chips   being    hewn 
away.     The  upper  ends  or  tops  are  "  roofed  " 
or  beveled   as   shown  in   Fig.    26.     The   lower 
ends  or  butts  are  cut  square  across.     After  the 
Fig.  26.         poles  have  been  peeled  and  roofed  and  other- 
wise properly  shaped  they  are  placed  where  they 
will   season,  and   may  be    piled   in    tiers    not    nearer    to  each 
other  than  6  inches  in  the  same  or  in  different  tiers,  the  lowest 
tier  being  propped  up  at  least  6  inches  above  the  ground.     If 


1  See  following  Forest  Service  publications: 

Bui.  88,  Properties  and  Uses  of  Douglas  Fir,  pp.  60  and  62;  Bui.  95, 
Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the  United  States  (Cedars,  Cypresses, 
and  Sequoias),  pp.  15,  18,  27,  39,  46,  and  49;  Bui.  99,  Uses  of  Com- 
mercial Woods  of  the  United  States  (Pines),  pp.  56,  72,  75,  82,  87, 
and  92. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  35 

they  have  been  cut  here  and  there,  one  or  two  in  a  place,  they 
should  be  propped  well  up  off  the  ground  and  left  in  such  a 
position  that  as  they  season  they  will  not  twist,  warp,  or  rot. 
Seasoning  should  cover  a  period  of  two  or  three  months. 

Preservative  treatment  may  be  apphed  after  they  are  thor- 
oughly seasoned,  while  they  are  perfectly  dry,  and  at  times  when 
they  are  free  of  frost.     See  page  358,  Appendix. 

Poles  in  Place. — These  are  simply  trees  growing  at  convenient 
points  for  the  location  of  poles  along  the  hne  and  are  trimmed 
and  topped  at  the  proper  height  and  left  standing.  When 
treated  in  this  manner  some  varieties  of  timber  last  better  than 
when  not.  Chief  among  the  more  durable  ones  are  Douglass 
fir,  white  pine  (Pinus  albicaulis),  and  white  oak.  White  fir 
(Abies  concolor)  and  pinon  (Pinus  edulis)  soon  rot  and  do  not 
make  satisfactory  poles  in  place.  Yellow  pine  (Pinus  ponderosa) 
usually  rots  within  a  year  or  eighteen  months,  unless  the  pole 
is  very  large.  Aspen  (Populus  iremidoides)  may  sprout  and 
stay  green  if  topped  in  the  spring,  as  will  also  most  of  the  oaks. 
The  sprouts  appear  at  the  point  of  topping  and  must  be  removed 
before  they  reach  a  size  or  length  that  will  allow  them  to  rub 
against  the  wire  and  impair  communication.  Poles  in  place 
should  have  a  minimum  top  diameter  of  4  inches  and  should 
have  all  branches  removed. 

Use  of  Different  Lengths. — Standard  Forest  Service  poles  are 
used  in  all  cases  except: 

(1)  When  a  fine  crosses  a  railroad;  the  wire  must  be  not 
less  than  26  feet  above  the  track. i 

(2)  When  a  line  crosses  a  wagon  road;  the  wire  must  be 
not  less  than  14  feet  above  the  road.i 

(3)  When  a  Hne  crosses  other  Unes;  the  wire  should  be  not 
less  than  18  inches  above  the  other  line. 

(4)  When  lines  are  run  across  country  where  brush  exceeds 
10  feet  in  height;  the  wire  should  be  held  at  least  4  feet  above 
the  tops  of  the  brush. 

(5)  TVTien  Hnes  cross  country  where  snow  may  drift  higher 
than  10  feet;  the  wire  should  be  held  at  least  2  feet  above  the 
tops  of  probable  drifts. 

(6)  When  spans  exceed  500  feet  in  length;  poles  must  be 
sufficiently  high  and  heavy  to  support  the  extra  weight. 

^  Higher  if  the  State  laws  require  it. 


36 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


(7)  Where  poles  must  be  set  at  such  points  that  extra  long 
spans  demand  unusual  sag;  the  lowest  part  of  the  wire  should 
be  held  high  enough  to  allow  uninterrupted  passage  of  travelers 
and  stock  beneath  it. 

Utilization. — In   order   to  secure   the   greatest   stability   and 
efficiency  of  a  line,  care  must  be  taken  to  distribute  the  poles 
where  different  lengths  will  do  the  most 
T^  y^Qkk.  good.      The   largest  and    strongest    ones 

^         ^  ''  should  be  used  at  points  where  the  strain 

of  the  wire  is  greatest,  such  as  at  cor- 
ners, along  curves,  under  long  spans  and 
at  terminals  and  switching  points.  Lighter 
and  weaker  poles  should  be  set  at  points 
where  they  will  be  subjected  to  only  mod- 

L,  |.||j-./  erate  strain. 

Jljiw  ^'^'^  spaces. — ^Under  ordinary  circumstances 

straight  Unes  should  have  thirty  poles  to 
the  mile,  thus  making  the  average  pole 
space  or  length  of  span  176  feet.  If  the 
line  makes  a  turn  at  right  angles  the 
spaces  at  either  side  of  the  turn  should 
not  exceed  100  feet  in  length.  This 
same  length  of  span  is  also  used  in  spans 
adjoining  one  from  300  to  500  feet  in  length.  It  is  likewise  used 
in  short,  sharp  curves. 

Attaching  Brackets  and  Insulators. — Brackets  are  attached  to 
the  poles  at  right  angles  to  the  ridge  of  the  roof  and  before  the 
poles  are  raised.  A  60-D  spike  is  used  in  the  upper  hole  and 
a  40-D  in  the  lower,  knots,  thick  rough  bark,  and  other  irregu- 
larities being  hev^-n  away  if  the  brackets  are  to  be  attached  to 
trees.  Brackets  are  always  so  attached  that  after  the  poles  are 
set  they  will  be  on  the  outer  side  of  ciu-ves,  but  when  the  poles 
carry  two  lines  then  the  brackets  are  placed  on  exactly  opposite 
sides  of  the  poles.  They  are  fitted  with  the  insulators  before 
the  poles  are  raised.     See  "Fig.  27. 

Holes. — Except  where  conditions  render  it  impossible  or  in- 
advisable these  should  have  about  the  following  depths: 


Fig.  27. 


Length  of  pole,  in  feet.  .  .      18         22 

Depth  of  hole,  f  Earth. . .    3.5        4.0 

m  feet  1  Rock..  .    3.0       3.0 


25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

4.5 

5.0 

G.O 

G.5 

G.5 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.0 

5.0 

CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


37 


Holes  along  curves  or  in  loose  soil  should  be  at  least  6  inches 
deeper  than  sho^\•n  above,  and  should  have  a  diameter  about 
6  inches  greater  than  that  of  the  pole  to  be  set.  If  poles  must 
be  set  in  sohd  rock,  it  usually  proves  more  economical  to  drill 
2-  or  3-inch  holes  and  use  pipe  for  poles. 

Setting. — In  setting  poles  they  are  turned  so  the  ridge  of  the 
roof  will  be  parallel  with  the  line  wire,  care  having  been  taken 
to  roof  the  crooked  poles  so  the  crooks  will  face  the  next 
pole  in  the  line  when  the  ridge  of  the  roof  is  parallel  with  the 
line.  All  poles  in  straight  lines  are  set  as  nearly  perpendicularly 
as  possible,  but  in  curves  are  given  a  certain  amount  of  rake  which 
is  about  as  foUowt^: 


Pull,  in  feet 5 

Rake,  in  inches 10 


10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

(See  Fig.  28) 

IG 

24 

33 

42 

(See  Fig.  29) 

The  pole  must  be  braced  or  guyed  if  the  rake  exceeds  42  inches. 

No  attempt  should  be  made  to 
adhere  strictly  to  these  figures  re- 
gardless of  all  conditions;  neither 
should  they  be  totally  disregarded. 

Tamping. — Some  heavy  iron  in- 
strument, such  as  a  crowbar,  hav- 
ing a  beveled  point  will  be  found 
preferable  for  this  use  to  one 
having  a  broad,  flat-tamping  sur- 
face.    Fine    dirt    should    be    well 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  29. 


tamped  about  the  base  of  the  pole  first,  and  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  it  is  firmly  packed  on  all  sides  of  the  poles. 
Alternate  fiUing  and  tamping  of  coarser  material  then  follow 
till  the  hole  is  filled.  After  this  has  been  done,  dirt  is  tamped 
about  the  pole  above  the  ground  level,  and  serves  as  a  water- 
shed which   will   drain   surface   water   away  from  rather  than 


38    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

allow  it  to  seep  down  about  the  base  of  the  pole.  Such  a  water- 
shed should  be  not  less  than  6  inches  high  at  the  pole,  and 
should  extend  outward  from  the  pole  to  a  distance  somewhat 
past  the  edges  of  the  hole. 

Methods  of  Strengthening. — It  not  infrequently  happens  that 
poles  may  be  of  such  material  or  may  be  so  placed  that  in  them- 
selves they  are  not  of  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  the  strain 
imposed  upon  them  by  the  line  wire,  and  in  such  instances  it 
of  course  becomes  necessary  to  re-enforce  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  efficiency  of  the  Hne  will  not  be  impaired. 

Guys. — These  are  of  twisted  wire  and  are  usually  cheaper 
than  braces.  They  consist  of  at  least  two  wires  (of  the  same 
gauge  as  the  Hne  wire)  twisted  together  and  are  of  a  length 
sufficient  to  reach  from  the  bracket  to  a  point  on  the  ground  at 
a  distance  from  the  pole  equal  to  the  pole's  height  above  ground. 
See  Fig.  30.  An  anchor  block,  or  "  dead  man,"  is  buried  at  a 
depth  of  3  feet,  which  allows  the  eye  of  an  ordinary  anchor  rod 
to  extend  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  After  the  upper 
end  of  the  guy  wire  has  been  made  fast  to  the  pole  by  two  turns 
about  it  just  below  the  bracket  and  twisted  not  less  than  six 
times  about  itself,  the  lower  end  is  brought  to  the  anchor  rod 
by  means  of  the  Buffalo  grips,  which  regulate  the  tension,  and 
is  then  passed  through  the  eye  and  back  on  and  twisted  about 
itseK  in  not  fewer  than  six  turns. 

Braces. — Brace  poles  should  have  a  minimum  butt  diameter 
of  8  inches.  They  should  be  set  at  least  3^  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  against  a  solid  bottom,  and  at  a  point 
from  the  pole  equal  in  distance  to  one-half  the  pole's  length. 
See  Fig.  31.  When  so  set  the  upper  end  should  strike  the  pole 
three-fourths  of  the  way  up.  Hewing,  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing a  tight  joint  where  the  brace  strikes  the  pole,  should  always 
be  done  on  the  brace  and  never  on  the  pole.  A  5^-inch  gal- 
vanized bolt  is  passed  through  both  timbers  just  above  the 
lower  edge  of  the  braces  and  serves  to  hold  the  two  together. 

Use  of  Guys  and  Braces. — These  are  used  on  the  first  and  last 
poles  of  a  fine,  at  approaches  to  crossings,  at  the  ends  of  spans 
from  300  to  500  feet  long,  and  on  poles  set  in  very  steep  hillsides 
or  along  curves  where  the  pull  exceeds  30  feet.  They  may  be 
used  at  other  points  as  circumstances  demand. 

Re-enforcements. — Poles  may  be  re-enforced  as  shown  in  Fig. 
32.     This  method  of  bracing  is  used  when  conditions  prohibit 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


39 


the  use  of  guys  or  braces  or  when  poles  have  become  weakened 
through  decay.     Stubs  should  be  of  cedar,  although  other  dur- 


•V7rappi»8 


Fig.  30. — Guy  for  telephone  pole. 


Fig.  31. — Brace  for  telephone  pole. 


Fig.  32. 


-R  e-enf orcement 
with  stub. 


able  woods  may  be  used  when  this  is  not  available,  and  should 
have  the  following  approximate  dimensions: 

Length  of  pole,  m  feet 18       22       25  30 

Length  of  stub,  in  feet 9  9         9.5        10 

Top  diameter  of  stub,  in  inches 7  7         8  8.5 

They  should  be  set  as  deep  as  the  pole  and  on  the  side  where 
line  strain  will  tend  to  pull  the  pole  toward  rather  than  away 
from  them. 


40 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Methods  of  construction  are  explained  in  the  figure. 
Stubs — These  are    used  where  a  guy  crosses  a  road  or    trail 
and  are  shown  in  Fig.  33.     They  are  guyed  the  same  as  a  pole. 

LAYING    WIRE 


Fig.  33. 


^//y/// 


-Stub  for  telephone 
pole. 


No  more  wire  than  can  be  hung  in  one  day  should  be 
laid  out  at  one  time.     It  should  be  cut  at  points  where  the 

line  is  to  cross  a  road,  trail,  or 
other  path  of  travel  and  the 
loose  ends  should  be  fastened 
back  out  of  the  way.  Unless  this 
is  done  the  wire  should  be  sus- 
pended in  such  a  manner  that 
vehicles  or  travelers  may  pass 
beneath  it  without  difficulty. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  all 
short  kinks  are  either  straightened 
or  cut  out  and  the  wire  spliced 
before  it  is  stretched,  this  being  especially  true  of  hard  drawn 
copper  wire.  Deep  nicks,  stretches  of  rust,  and  all  other  espe- 
cially weak  spots  should  be  cut  out,  but  at  the  same  time  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  number  of  spUces  at  a  minimum  if 
efficient  service  of  the  fine  is  to  be  secured. 

The  coil  of  wire  to  be  laid  out  should  be  placed  on  the  reel 
in  such  a  way  that  the  loose  end  will  run  from  the  outside  and 
a  few  rounds  should  be  run  off  in  order  to  ascertain  definitely 
whether  this  end  of  the  wire  has  been  loosened.  If  the  topog- 
raphy and  travel  facihties  of  the  country  permit,  the  reel  may 
then  be  placed  in  the  rear  of  a  wagon  and  hauled  over  the  right- 
of-way  after  the  loose  end  has  been  tied  to  some  stationary 
object.  Otherwise  two  men  may  carry  the  reel  and  lay  out 
the  wire  after  the  same  manner.  If  neither  of  these  methods 
is  practicable  then  the  reel  may  be  firmly  set  and  the  wire  laid 
out  with  a  horse.  This  can  be  done  by  tying  a  12-  or  14-foot 
rope  to  the  end  of  the  wire  and  "  dallying  "  the  other  end  at 
the  saddle  horn.  The  practice  of  looping  the  wire  itself  about 
the  horn  is  one  to  be  avoided;  in  case  of  accident  the  wire  can 
not  be  released  in  time  to  avert  injury  either  to  the  horse  or 
the  rider. 

Animals  not  trained  to  pull  under  the  saddle  may  be  worked 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


41 


in  harness,  the  wire  being  looped  into  the  center  chp  of  a  single 
tree  and  laid  out  quickly  and  easily.  It  is  always  advisable, 
however,  for  one  man  to  remain  at  the  reel  to  see  that  no  tan- 
gles occur  as  the  wire  is  run  off.  It  invariably  happens  that 
without  some  means  of  regulating  the  speed  at  w^hich  the  reel 
revolves  several  turns  of  wire  are  thro^^^l  off  at  once  and  the 
consequent  tangle  necessitates  numerous  splices  or  else  total 
loss  of  all  the  turns  so  tangled.  It  is  also  advisable,  and  even 
necessary,  that  a  prearranged  system  of  signals  be  agreed  upon 
by  the  man  at  the  reel  and  the  one  paying  out  the  wire. 

Care  must  be  taken,  also,  to  see  that  the  wire  is  laid  on  the 
proper  side  of  poles  if  extra  work  in  the  way  of  replacing  or 
cutting  and  splicing  is  to  be  avoided. 

After  the  wire  has  been  laid  it  may  be  hung  over  the  brackets, 
ready  for  stretching  and  tying,  by  means  of  either  a  slender 
pole,  to  the  ends  of  which  a  horseshoe  has  been  attached  so  that 
when  the  pole  is  erect  the  heels  will  point  upward,  or  by  using 
a  long  slender  forked  pole. 


CLIMBING 

The  chmbers  or  hooks  are  strapped  securely  to  the  legs  just 
below  the  knees  and  again  at  the  ankles  with  the  loose  ends 
of  the  straps  projecting  to  the  rear  as  shown  in  Fig.  34.  The 
safety  belt  is  buckled  about  the  waist 
comfortably  tight  and  aU  the  tools  to 
be  used  in  tying  or  otherwise  working 
on  the  wire  at  the  insulator  are  placed 
in  their  respective  loops.  One  end  of 
the  safety  strap  is  snapped  into  the  ring 
at  the  left  side  of  the  belt  and  the 
other  is  allowed  to  hang  loose  until 
the  cUmber  reaches  the  desired  height 
on  the  pole.  This  is  usually  when  the 
chin  is  about  on  a  level  with  the  insu- 
lator if  tying  is  to  be  done.  In  using 
the  hooks  no  attempt  should  be  made  to 

grip  the  pole  with  the  knees,  as  this  will  force  the  hooks  out  of 
the  wood  and  cause  the  cUmber  to  shde  suddenly  downward. ^ 
The  knees  must  be  bent  outward  away  from  the  pole  and  care 


Fig.  34.  —  Method  of 
attaching  climbers  or 
"hooks"  to  the  legs 
and  feet. 


*  Known  in  the  lineman's  vernacular  as  "burning  the  pole." 


42 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


must  be  taken  to  fix  each  hook  firmly  into  the  pole  before  an- 
other step  is  attempted.  This  is  done  by  a  sharp,  vigorous 
thrust  with  the  foot  directed  diagonally  downward  at  the  pole. 
The  body  is  kept  well  away  from  the  pole  and  parallel  with  it 
from  the  waist  up.  Crooked  or  leaning  poles  are  chmbed  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  crook.  When  the  desired  height  has  been 
reached  both  hooks  are  struck  into  the  pole  at  about  the  same 
level  and  the  pole  is  securely  grasped  with  the  right  hand  and 
arm.  The  safety  strap  is  passed  around  the  pole  with  the  left 
hand  and  caught  with  the  fingers  of  the  right.  The  left  hand 
and  arm  then  grasp  the  pole,  and  the  safety  strap  is  hooked  into 
the  right  side  of  the  belt  with  the  right  hand.  The  hneman 
then  settles  his  weight  backward  against  the  belt  and  down 
ward  on  the  hooks,  keeping  his  body  rigid  and  well  away  from 
the  pole.  In  this  position  he  is  able  to  make  a  tie  without 
difficulty. 

POLE  STEPS 
These  are  used  in  poles  over  35  feet  in  length.     Beginning 
at  a  point  6  feet  above  the  ground  they  are  set  alternately  along 


Pig.  35. — Horseshoe  tie  for  iron 
wire. 


Fig.  3G. — Figure  8  tie  for 
iron  wire. 


opposite  sides  of  a  pole  and  are  spaced  3  feet  apart,  making 
steps  18  inches  high.  As  a  general  rule  they  are  screwed  into 
the  pole  before  the  latter  is  raised.  The  most  convenient  method 
of  inserting  them  is  to  start  holes  Vie-inch  less  in  diameter  than 
the  screws.  They  may  then  be  screwed  or  driven  in  without 
difficulty.  If  they  are  to  be  used  in  large  trees  they  should  be 
placed  at  about  right  angles  to  each  other  rather  than  on  exactly 
opposite  sides  of  the  tree. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


43 


TIES 

Horseshoe. — This  tie  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  35.  It  is  the  most 
common  tie  used,  and  is  especially  convenient  in  rural  and  sec- 
ondary lines.  The  tie  wire  is  of  the  same  gauge  as  the  Hne  wire 
and  is  cut  10  inches  long.     Each  end  is  given  not  less  than  three 


Fig.  37. — Figure  8  tie  for  hard-dravm  copper  wire. 


close  turns  about  the  hne  wire  and  the  projecting  ends  are  then 
cHpped  off  short  in  order  to  avoid  weakened  transmission  as  the 
result  of  "  leakage."  Such  ties  are  for  use  on  iron  wire  and  are 
not  adapted  to  tying  hard-dra\\Ti  copper  wire. 

Figure  8. — The  wire  for  this  tie  is  also  of  the  same  gauge  as 
that  of  the  line  wire,  but  is  cut  from  24  to  30  inches  long.     When 
used  on  iron  wire,  it  is  constructed  as 
shown  in  Fig.  36,  but  if  hard-drawn 
copper  wire  is  to  be  tied  it  is  made 
as  sho-^Ti  in  Fig.  37. 

A  variation  of  this  tie  is  shown  in 
Fig.  38,  but  is  not  used  as  extensively 
as  either  of  the  preceding  ones.  How- 
ever, it  may  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage in  tying  hard  -  drawn  copper 
wire,  and  in  such  a  case  the  ends  are 
disposed  of  as  shown  in  Fig.  37. 
The  tie  ware  is  cut  18  inches  long. 

Swinging. — These  ties  are  con- 
structed as  showTi  in  Fig.  39  and 
are  for  use  in  Hnes  hung  from  swing- 
ing   insulators.     They  are   attached 

to  the  hne  wire  not  nearer  than  6  inches  to  the  insulator  and 
are  cut  about  20  inches  long. 

SAG 

This  term  has  reference  to  the  distance  below  the  hori- 
zontal to  which  a  hne  wire  should  reach  at  or  near  the  center  of 
the  span.     The  table  of  sag  necessary  to  allow  for  galvanized 


Fig.  38. — Tie  for  iron  wire. 
(Seldom  used.) 


44     HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

iron  wire,  hard-drawn  copper  wire,  and  for  lines  hung  on  trees, 
will  be  found  on  page  355,  Appendix.  The  object  of  sag  is  to 
permit  regulation  of  the  tension  of  the  wire  during  hot  or  cold 


Fig.  39. — Swinging  insulator. 

weather.     In  no  case  should  it  be  less  than  that  given  in  the 
table. 

SPLICES 

In  Galvanized  Iron  Wire. — If  a  spUce  is  to  give  the  best  ser- 
vice it  must  be  as  tight  as  possible  and  projecting  ends  must  be 
cut  away  close  up.  Otherwise  the  transmitting  efficiency  of  the 
line  will  be  weakened  through  ''  leakage  "  and  communication 


Hook. 
Western  Electric  joint.     For  iron  wire. 


Hard-drawn  copper  wire  spliced  by  use  of 

sleeve. 

Fig.  40. — Splices. 

will  be  greatly  impaired.  The  process  followed  in  construct- 
ing a  splice  for  this  variety  of  wire  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  40,  and 
is  known  as  thf^  "  Western  Electric  "  joint.     The  wire  ends  are 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


45 


run  through  the  connectors  from  opposite  sides  and  are  then 
given  five  turns  about  each  other.  Another  method  is  to  use 
two  pairs  of  connectors  and  turn  them  in  opposite  directions 
or  else  hold  one  stationary  and  turn  the  other. 

In  Hard-Drawn  Copper  Wire. — SpUces  in  this  wire  are  made 
as  show^n  in  Fig.  40,  The  wire  ends  are  inserted  in  the  sleeves 
from  opposite  sides  and  ends  and  are  then  given  not  less  than 


For  hard-drawn  copper  wire. 


For  iron  wire. 
Fig.  41. — Dead  ends. 


three  nor  more  than  four  turns.  The  projecting  ends,  which 
should  not  exceed  1  inch  in  length,  are  turned  back  upon  them- 
selves. The  sleeves  should  not  be  used  in  making  spHces  in 
galvanized  iron  wire,  as  corrosion  will  result  and  weaken  the  wire. 
The  Hook  Splice. — This  sphce,  also  showTi  in  Fig.  40,  is  the 
very  poorest  sort  of  makeshift  and  should  not  be  used  under 


46 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


any  circumstances.  Two  or  three  of  them  in  a  line  will  so 
weaken  the  transmitting  powers  as  to  render  communication 
almost  impossible. 

DEAD-ENDS 

These  are  used  at  the  terminals  of  lines,  on  poles  next  to 
railway  or  underground  crossings,  and  at  the  junctions  of  switch 
lines  with  main  lines.  They  are  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig. 
41.  If  hard-drawn  copper  wire  is  to  be  dead-ended  the  method 
is  the  same  as  shown  in  Fig.  41,  where  a  half-length  sleeve  is 
given  one  and  one-half  turns. 


APPROACHES    AND    CROSSINGS 

Forest  Service  hnes  approaching  other  lines  for  the  purpose  of 
crossing  them  are  dead-ended  at  either  side.  This  is  especially 
important  if  the  crossing  span  is  to  be  very 
long,  in  which  case  it  is  also  dead-ended  and 
connected  to  the  main  line  as  shown  in  Fig.  42. 
Such  crossings  are  to  be  over  other  lines,  unless 
the  latter  wiU  be  kept  in  good  repair,  and  not 
allowed  to  fall  across  the  Forest  Service  Hne. 
Power-transmission  lines  or  electric-Hght  Unes 
are  crossed  underground,  the  nearest  poles 
being  set  not  less  than  150  feet  from  them. 
These  crossings  should  be  taken  up  in 
detail  with  the  proper  office  and  specific  instruc- 
tions obtained  as  to  the  proper  method  of 
construction. 

Spans  crossing  raikoads  must  be  suspended 
from  poles  set  far  enough  back  from  the  track  so  they  will  not 
reach  it  in  case  they  fall.  Ordinarily  they  should  be  braced 
or  guyed  from  a  direction  that  will  prevent  them  from  falling 
toward  the  track.  The  Hne  wire  is  dead-ended  at  either  side 
and  two  insulators  are  used,  as  shown  in  Fig.  42. 

Spans  crossing  wagon  roads  must  be  suspended  at  a  height 
that  wiU  permit  the  passage  of  traffic  beneath  them. 

All  approaches  to  crossings  are  at  right  angles  to  the  line  or 
road  to  be  crossed;  unless  the  ends  of  the  crossing  spans  are 
dead-ended  they  are  tied  with  the  figure  8  tie ;  and  if  the  spans 
are  to  be  500  feet  or  more  in  length,  specific  instructions  as  to 
the  proper  method  of  crossing  should  be  obtained. 


Pig.  42. — Dead- 
ends at  crossing. 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


47 


CONNECTIONS 

Branch   lines  connecting  with  Forest  Service  lines  are  dead- 


ended  on  a  separate  insulator, 
supply    the  connection  wire,    as 


They  are  left  long  enough  to 
shown  in  Fig.  43,  and  this 
is  given  at  least  seven  turns 
about  the  main  Hne  if  gal- 
vanized iron  wire  is  used. 
Hard  -  drawn  copper  -  wire 
connections  are  made  as 
shown   in  Fig.  44. 


Fig.  43. 


-Branch-line  connection. 
Iron  wire. 


Fig.  44. — Branch-line 

connection. 

Hard-drawn  copper  wire. 


LIGHTNING    RODS 

These  are  of  the  same  gauge  wire  as  the  Une  wire  and  are 
attached  to  the  poles  before  the  latter  are  set.  They  are  cut  33^ 
feet  longer  than  the  pole  to  which  they  are  to  be  stapled  and  a 
6-inch  length  is  allowed  to  project  beyond  the  upper  end,  or  past 
the  ridge  of  the  pole  roof.  This  is  then  bent  back  and  twisted 
about  itself,  leaving  a  3-inch  extension  above  the  pole.  The 
extra  3-foot  length  is  coiled  or  wound  about  in  the  shape  of  a 
clock  spring  and  is  stapled  to  the  squared-off  butt  of  the  pole.  The 
wire  is  then  stapled  along  the  pole  one-quarter  of  the  way  around 
from  the  insulator.  It  must  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  hne  ware  or  grounding  wiU  be  the  result.  Ordinarily 
one  should  be  attached  to  every  tenth  pole,  but  if  the  line  follows 
a  route  which  is  greatly  exposed  to  atmospheric  disturbances 
one  should  be  supphed  at  every  fifth  pole. 


48    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

OTHER    LINES 

Forest  Service  lines  hung  on  the  same  poles  with  other  lines 
should  be  fastened  at  least  2  feet  above  the  latter.  They  should 
never  under  any  circumstances  be  hung  on  poles  carrying  power 
lines  or  other  wires  heavily  charged  with  electricity. 

TREE    LINES 

Where  trees  are  used  in  Heu  of  poles  the  hne  is  hung  to  them 
by  means  of  swinging  insulators,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39.  These  con- 
sist of  two  duplicate  pieces  of  porcelain  which  when  properly 
fitted  together  resemble  an  ordinary  "spool"  or  "knob"  insulator, 
except  that  the  groove  passes  around  the  center  instead  of  at  one 
end.  Each  piece  is  fitted  with  a  shallow  hole  at  one  corner  and 
with  a  short  tenon  at  the  corner  diagonally  opposite.  These 
prevent  lateral  displacement  of  the  halves.  Each  haK  is  also  fitted 
with  a  semicircular,  w^ell-glazed,  lengthwise  groove  through  which 
the  line  wire  passes  w^hen  the  halves  are  fastened  together.  After 
they  have  been  fastened  about  the  line  wire  they  are  suspended 
from  long  tie  wires  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  swing  to  a  dis- 
tance of  from  8  to  24  inches,  farther  if  necessary.  They  were  orig- 
inally designed  as  a  means  of  allowing  the  wire  to  sUde  through 
its  support  and  not  be  broken  by  the  swaying  of  the  tree.  How- 
ever, the  line  wire  seldom  slides  through  them,  but  finally  causes 
the  tie  wire  to  break  at  or  near  the  tree  as  the  result  of  con- 
tinuous bending  backward  and  forward.  This  trouble  may  be 
overcome  by  attaching  a  wire  ring  to  the  tree  and  fastening 
the  tie  wire  into  it.  This  ring  may  be  made  by  twisting  a  piece 
of  wire  about  a  hammer-  or  hatchet-handle.  Another  objection 
to  the  use  of  such  insulators  is  the  fact  that  w^hen  the  line  w^ke 
does  shde  through  them  it  becomes  worn  at  that  point  and 
finally  breaks.  It  is  assumed  that  w^hen  they  are  used,  trees 
falhng  across  the  line  will  not  break  it,  but  that  the  sag  from 
several  spans  will  accumulate  at  that  place  and  allow  the  wire 
to  be  borne  to  the  ground.  This  is  exactly  what  occurs  if  the 
line  is  properly  hung.  Such  fines  are  tied  at  about  every  seventh 
pole  or  tree  by  being  fastened  to  an  insulator  on  a  bracket. 
These  ties  are  of  No.  12  gauge  wire  instead  of  No.  9,  the  differ- 
ence in  gauge  allowing  the  tie  w^re  to  break  before  the  line  wire 
does.  The  same  gauge  is  also  used  in  tying  every  third  swing- 
ing insulator.     Other  ties  are  of  No.  18  gauge  seizing  strand. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  49 


TELEPHONES 

Ohms  Resistance  of  Ringer  Coils. — The  standard  telephone 
used  by  the  Forest  Service  is  of  2,500  ohms  resistance,  but  when 
Forest  Service  lines  are  connected  with  other  Hnes  the  ringer 
coils  in  both  the  telephones  and  extension  bells  should  have 
the  same  resistance  as  those  on  the  line  connected  with.  In 
some  instances  it  may  therefore  be  necessary  to  use  instruments 
having  1,600  ohm  ringers. 

Protection. — The  protector  adopted  as  standard  by  the  Forest 
Service  is  known  as  No.  60-E  and  is  used  where  there  is  no 
exposure  to  liigh-tension  circuits,  such  as  power  or  electric-Ught 
lines.  If  exposure  to  lightning  is  especially  great  a  No.  47-A 
Hne  fuse  is  used  in  addition  to  the  No.  60-E  protector,  but  should 
be  so  placed  that  the  wire  nearest  the  Une  may  faU  away  when 
the  fuse  is  blown. 

The  same  combination  protection  is  used  where  there  may 
be  exposure  to  hnes  of  high-tension  voltage  except  in  cases  where 
the  voltage  may  exceed  1,800.  In  that  event  specific  instruc- 
tions are  to  be  obtained  as  to  what  method  of  protection  should 
be  used. 

INST.\LLATIONi 

Dead-Ending  the  Line  Wire. — The  dead-end  bracket  should 
be  attached  to  the  side  of  the  building  at  a  point  as  near  the 
proposed  location  of  the  telephone  as  possible.  In  attaching 
the  Hne  wire  to  the  dead-end  insulator  it  is  left  long  enough  after 
dead-ending  to  be  bent  back  on  itseK  for  a  distance  of  at  least 
2  feet  and  is  then  run  down  to  and  connected  with  the  fuse  as 
shown  in  Fig.  45.  The  fuse  should  be  suspended  at  a  point 
low  enough  to  allow  easy  access  to  it  when  replacement  becomes 
necessary. 

Connection  of  Fuse  with  Set. — This  connection  is  shown  at  1 
in  Fig.  45  and  should  be  of  No.  14  Brown  &  Sharp  gauge  wire 
weather-proofed.  The  insulator  shown  at  2  is  the  regular  No. 
43^2  porcelain  knob  attached  to  the  wall  with  a  No.  18,  3-inch, 
flat-headed  iron  screw.     The  tie  wire  should  be  insulated. 

1  For  installation  of  sets  on  metallic  circuits,  wiring,  and  installa- 
tion of  outside  sets,  and  other  information,  see  Forest  Service  manual, 
"Instructions  for  the  Building  and  Maintenance  of  Telephone  Lines 
on  the  National  Forests." 


50 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Drip  Loops. — These  are  made  as  shown  at  3  and  are  provided 
in  order  that  water  may  not  follow  along  the  wire  into  the  tube, 
shown  at  4.     Such  loops  should  be  at  least  2  inches  deep. 

Tubes. — These  are  also  of  porcelain  and  are  of  different 
lengths  and  diameters.  They  are  used  as  conveyances  for  wires 
which  are  to  be  passed  through  walls  and  they  also  act  as  extra 
insulation  for  such  wires.  In  outside  walls  they  should  be  set 
with  the  inner  end  higher  than  the  outer  end.     This  prevents 

water  from  following  along 
the  wire  into  the  building. 
They  may  be  set  horizontally 
in  interior  walls. 

Connections   at  Protector. 
— Usually    the    protector    is 
attached  to  the  inside  of  the 
wall  at  a  point  directly  over 
the  telephone.      The  line  wire 
connects  at   the   upper   side 
and  the  line  terminal  in  the 
set  connects  at  the  lower  side. 
Connections  in  the  Set. — 
As   a    general   rule   all  tele- 
phone sets  come  ready  wired 
and  the  terminals  in  the  ones 
used  by  the  Forest   Service 
are  lettered  "  Line  1  "  and  **  Line  2."     The   Kne   wire   is   con- 
nected with  the  former  and  the  ground  wire  with  the  latter. 

Ground  Rods. — The  standard  ground  rod  used  by  the  Forest 
Service  is  a  3^-inch  iron  rod  5  feet  long  fitted  with  a  copper  wire 
for  connection  with  the  ground  wire  of  the  set.  When  possible 
to  do  so  this  rod  should  be  driven  its  full  length  into  the  ground. 
At  any  rate,  it  must  be  driven  to  moist  earth  if  good  grounding  is 
secured.  It  need  not  necessarily  be  driven  immediately  next  to 
the  building  but  may  be  set  at  a  point  several  rods  away.  If 
the  character  of  the  ground  is  such  that  no  suitable  place  can  be 
found  for  the  ground  rod,  a  50-foot  length  of  wire  may  be  closely 
coiled  and  buried  at  a  depth  which  wiU  insure  its  contact  with 
permanently  moist  earth.  One  end  of  this  wire  is  then  connected 
with  the  ground  wire  of  the  set.  The  hole  in  which  the  wire  is 
buried  should  be  filled  with  charcoal  or  very  fine  dirt. 

Joints  and  Splices. — All  joints  and  splices,  both  inside  and 


Fig.  45. 


CONSTRUCTION   WOP.K 


51 


outside  of  the  telephone,  should  be  wrapped  with  tape,  except 
those  at  the  terminals  in  the  set.  If  this  is  done  they  need  not 
be  soldered. 

Connection  of  Batteries. — Ordinarily  all  telephones  are  fitted 
with  dr>'  batteries  which  are  connected  with  each  other,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  46.     They  are  connected  before  being  placed  in 


Fig.  46. — Connection  of  batteries. 

the  box.     If  the  latter  is  wide  enough  to  accommodate  three 
batteries  this  number  should  be  used  in  preference  to  two. 

To  Test  Dry  Batteries. — The  easiest  method  of  ascertaining 
whether  or  not  a  battery  is  exhausted  or  "dead"  is  to  press  the 
heel  of  a  knife-blade  firmly  against  the  binding  post  at  the  edge 
of  the  battery  and  the  point  of  the  blade  against  that  portion 
of  the  battery  in  which  the  other  binding  post  is  fastened.  If 
the  portion  touched  with  the  point  of  the  blade  ^ 'fries,"  sparkles, 
or  smokes  the  battery  is  stiU  "ahve."  If  the  application  of  the 
knife-blade  has  no  perceptible  effect  on  it,  then  the  battery  is  too 
weak  to  give  good  service  and  should  be  replaced  with  a  new 
one.  Another  effective  test  is  to  place  the  binding  posts  of  one 
battery  against  opposite  posts  of  another.  A  spark  will  result 
if  the  batteries  are  alive. 

TELEPHONE  TROUBLES 

The  following  "troubles"  occur  most  frequently  and  as  a 
general  rule  may  be  immediately  remedied  by  making  the  nec- 
essary repairs  or  adjustments: 

(1)  Rings  and  communication  received  but  not  transmitted: 
Loose  connections  or  broken  wires  in  batteries  or  transmitter  or 
both. 

(2)  Rings  not  received:  Broken  wires  or  loose  connections 
in  ringer  or  improper  adjustment  of  clapper  between  bells. 

''S^  Rings  transmitted  but  not  received:     Loose  connections 


52    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

or  broken  wires  at  connection  of  line  wire  with  set,  ground  rod 
or  protector,  contact  of  lina  with  trees,  or  other  grounding  agents. 

(4)  Crank  turns  hard  and  rings  are  inaudible  and  not  trans- 
mitted:    Usually  due  to  crossed  wires. 

(5)  Crank  turns  easily,  rings  audible  but  not  transmitted: 
Broken  or  poor  ground  connections,  loose  connections  of  outside 
with  inside  wiring,  broken  line  wire,  poor  connection  at  terminals 
or  protector. 

(6)  Indistinct  transmission  and  receiving:  Loose  connections, 
improper  joints  or  spUces,  worn-out  batteries,  or  faulty  grounding. 

(7)  Difficult  ringing,  transmission,  and  receiving:  Poor 
joints,  laulty  ground,  fine  wire  of  too  light  a  gauge,  too  many 
telephones  on  the  line,  too  many  receivers  down,  contact  of  fine 
with  trees,  branches,  or  poles. 

(8)  Good  transmission,  poor  receiving:  Loose  connection  or 
broken  wires  in  induction  coil  or  receiver  hook,  broken  wires  in 
receiver  or  receiver  cord,  damaged  or  dusty  diapliragm. 

(9)  No  transmission  or  receiving:  Broken  or  disconnected 
line  wire,  crossed  or  broken  wires  in  the  set,  no  ground  connec- 
tion, improper  terminal  connections. 

(10)  Intermittent  transmission  and  receiving:  Loose  line 
connections,  intermittent  contact  of  Hne  wire  with  grounding 
agents. 

DAMAGE    TO    OR    DESTRUCTION    OF 
TELEPHONE    LINES 

Section  60  of  the  Act  of  March  4,  1909,  as  quoted  on  page  31, 
U.  B.,  1915,  provides  as  follows: 

"  Whoever  shall  willfully  or  maUciously  injure  or  destroy  any 
of  the  works,  property,  or  material  of  any  telegraph,  telephone, 
or  cable  line  or  system,  operated  or  controlled  by  the  United 
States,  whether  constructed  or  in  process  of  construction,  or 
shall  wiUfuUy  or  mahciously  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  work- 
ing or  use  of  any  such  line  or  system,  or  shaU  willfully  or  mali- 
ciously obstruct,  hinder,  or  deUy  the  transmission  of  any  com- 
munication over  any  such  line  or  system,  shall  be  fined  not 
more  than  $1,000  or  imprisoned  not  more  than  three  years, 
or  both." 

TRAILS 

Local  conditions  so  completely  govern  the  work  of  trail  con- 
struction as  to  make  a  set  of  definite  rules  impracticable,  but 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  53 

nevertheless  certain  general  rules  can  always  be  followed  vnth 
more  or  less  success,  and  it  is  felt  that  a  few  suggestions  concern- 
ing the  actual  work  in  the  field  will  not  be  out  of  plact. 

Purpose. — Trails  are  constructed  in  National  Forests  for  tlrree 
general  purposes,  viz.:  (1)  Transportation  facihties;  (2)  travel 
facihties;  (3)  protection  facilities.  The  first  is  constructed 
between  points  where  more  or  less  trafl&c  in  the  shape  of  suppUes 
and  other  commodities  passes  in  transportation  by  pack-animals. 
Such  a  trail  would  correspond  to  a  class  A  trail  as  designated 
in  the  Forest  Service  and  would  usually  follow  some  natural  hne 
of  travel,  such  as  a  main  valley,  where  eventually  it  could  be 
widened  into  a  road  with  httle  further  expense.  It  would  have 
a  maximum  gi'ade  of  15%  with  a  standard  grade  of  6%.  The 
second  would  be  constructed  chiefly  as  a  means  of  access  from 
one  secondary  point  to  others,  would  not  exceed  a  20%  grade, 
maximum,  with  a  standard  grade  of  12%,  would  not  be  built 
in  anticipation  of  its  future  reconstruction  as  a  road,  and  would 
correspond  to  what  is  known  in  the  Forest  Service  as  a  class  B 
trail. 

A  trail  leading  to  some  isolated  point  not  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  justify  heavj^  expenditures  in  trail  construction  or  to 
demand  frequent  visits  or  quick  access  would  be  a  class  C  trail, 
and  might  have  a  grade  as  much  in  excess  of  20%  as  could  be 
negotiated  by  pack-  or  saddle-animals,  the  standard  grade, 
however,  being  18%. 

All  trails,  in  addition  to  facilitating  transportation  and  travel, 
may  also  serve  as  means  of  fire  protection  by  pro\dding  stretches 
of  ground  free  from  inflammable  material. 

Preliminary  Survey.— The  three  features  of  greatest  impor- 
tance in  the  prehminary  survey  for  a  trail  are:  (1)  Directness 
of  route;  (2)  uniformity  of  grade;  and  (3)  cost  of  construction 
as  compared  with  the  economic  value  of  the  completed  trail. 
Obviously  the  adoption  of  an  indirect  route  between  termini 
when  a  more  direct  and  just  as  good  a  route  is  possible  cannot 
be  justified,  nor  are  numerous  and  unnecessary  descents  justifi- 
able when  ascent  is  the  objective.  Cost  estimates  must  be  held 
to  a  limit  compatible  with  the  importance  of  the  trail,  i.  e.,  ex- 


1  See  Trail  Manual,  1913,  Preliminary  Draft,  by  F.  A.  SIlcox, 
District  Forester,  District  No.  1.  See  also  the  manual,  Trail  Con- 
struction on  the  National  Forests,  1915. 


54    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

penditures  sufficient  for  construction  of  a  class  A  trail  should 
not  be  contemplated  in  construction  of  a  trail  to  be  of  minor 
importance  when  completed.  On  the  other  hand,  however, 
proper  construction  of  a  trail  intended  to  be  used  cliiefly  for 
transportation  purposes  should  not  be  neglected  to  an  extent 
that  will  leave  the  trail  in  no  better  condition  when  completed 
than  a  class  B  or  C  trail.  Cost  of  construction  is  necessarily 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  route  to  be  covered,  the  amount 
of  blasting  and  grading  to  be  done,  the  number  and  sizes  of 
bridges,  culverts,  drain  ditches,  retaining  walls,  and  switchbacks 
required  and  the  amount  of  swamping  to  be  done.  It  also 
includes  the  cost  of  the  prehminary  survey,  which,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  should  not  exceed  5%  of  the  entire  cost  of  actual 
construction. 

Locating  the  Route. — In  most  instances  where  a  trail  must 
cross  hilly  or  mountainous  country  the  work  of  locating  the 
route  should  begin  at  the  high  points  and  proceed  down-hiU, 
this  method  of  operation  facihtating  advance  observations  and 
obviating  extra  work  often  incident  to  up-hill  surveys.  The 
prehminary  route  or  routes  should  be  marked  only  at  points 
sufficient  to  indicate  the  line  for  possible  future  reference  in  the 
final  survey,  blazes  being  very  light  and  not  cut  through  the 
bark,  and  stakes  being  small  and  only  temporary  in  nature. 
Later,  after  aU  trail  lines  have  been  run  and  the  final  survey 
has  been  made,  this  should  be  marked  plainly  wath  blazes  cut 
through  the  bark  or  with  strong  durable  stakes  set  firmly  in  the 
ground  at  freq\ient  intervals. 

Such  blazes  or  stakes  may  be  scribed  or  otherwise  marked 
with  any  information  the  construction  crew  may  requii-e  for 
proper  grading  or  other  work,  care  being  taken  of  com-se  to  see 
that  the  foreman  will  readily  understand  what  is  meant  by 
certain  locations  of  or  data  on  stakes  or  blazes. 

Grade. — To  determine  the  grade  of  a  trail  between  objec- 
tive points  the  rise,  or  difference  in  elevation,  between  those 
points  is  divided  by  the  corresponding  length  of  trail  minus 
the  total  length  of  the  level  stretches  it  may  cover.  Thus, 
letting  R  represent  the  rise,  T  the  length  of  trail,  L  the  total 
length  of  levels,  and  G  the  per  cent  of  grade,  the  formula  for 
such  a  calculation  would  be 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  55 

Therefore,  assuming  that  a  trail  3^  mile,  or  2,640  feet,  in  length 
ascends  375  feet  and  covers  levels  aggi-egating  140  feet  in  length, 
the  per  cent  of  the  grade  is  found  thus: 

=  15%. 


2,640  -  140 


Clearing. — Trees,  brush,  and  saplings  should  be  cut  out  to  a 
distance  far  enough  back  on  either  side  of  the  trail  to  allow  un- 
interrupted progress  of  pack-  and  saddle-animals.  Limbs  over- 
hanging the  trail  should  be  removed  till  at  least  an  8-foot  vertical 
clearance  is  secured.  These  should  not  be  merely  "bobbed" 
or  "dehorned"  so  that  long  stubs  are  left  projecting  toward  the 
trail,  but  should  be  cut  away  close  up  to  the  tree  trunk.  Stumps 
growing  along  the  lower  edge  of  a  side-hill  trail  frequently  may 
be  utilized  as  braces  in  retaining  walls  of  minor  importance  but 
should  not  be  rehed  upon  to  form  parts  of  heavy  walls  that  can 
be  repaired  only  wdth  difficulty.  If  they  are  to  be  left  along 
other  portions  of  the  trail  they  should  be  cut  low  enough  to 
allow  plenty  of  room  for  stirrups  to  pass  above  them.  Large 
trees  growing  directly  in  the  route  chosen  for  the  trail  to  follow 
should,  in  all  ordinary  circumstances,  be  passed  around  rather 
than  felled.  If  they  are  felled  the  stumps  must  be  either  passed 
around  anyhow  or  else  grubbed  out,  and  in  this  case  there  always 
arises  the  question  whether  or  not  grubbing  is  naore  economical 
than  deviation  of  the  trail. 

Large  roots  or  small  stumps  uncovered  in  grading  and  left 
projecting  above  ground  or  from  the  uppor  bank  should  be  cut 
out  in  such  a  way  that  remaining  portions  cannot  possibly  inter- 
fere with  travel. 

Disposal  of  Debris. — A  fixed  rule  in  the  Forest  Service  is 
either  to  bum  all  refuse  resulting  from  clearing  and  grading  or 
else  pile  it  and  have  it  ready  for  burning  at  a  later  date  if  cir- 
cumstances prohibit  burning  at  the  time  the  trail  is  constructed. 

GRADING 

Blasting. — A  discussion  of  this  subject  will  be  found  on  pages 
74  to  85,  inclusive. 

Tools  Required. — The  number  of  tools  required  in  building 
a  trail  depends  upon  the  number  of  men  to  be  employed  and 
the  nature  of  the  ground  to  be  worked  over,  and  about  the  only 


56    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

general  rule  that  can  be  followed  in  outfitting  a  crew  is  to  see 
that  each  man  is  provided  with  at  least  one  tool.  In  addition 
to  such  a  list  it  is  also  well  to  supply  at  least  one  extra  tool,  or 
accessories,  of  each  variety  to  be  used  most  and  which  will  be 
most  Uable  to  damage.  This  is  especially  true  of  handles  if 
suitable  material  for  improvised  handles  cannot  be  secured  along 
the  trail. 

Plmos. — Only  in  rare  cases  can  trail  grading  be  done  by  means 
of  teams. 

Occasionally,  however,  one  horse,  hitched  to  a  light  plow, 
can  be  used  to  advantage  in  breaking  ground  which  can  later 
be  raked  or  shoveled  out  or  placed  as  desired.  The  most  suitable 
plow  for  such  work  is  what  is  known  in  the  South,  and,  in  fact, 
in  most  other  sections,  as  a  "bull  tongue"  or  "Georgia  stock," 
and  which  consists  merely  of  a  straight  beam  frame  carrying  a 
strj^ight  leg  fitted  with  a  4-inch  steel  shovel  from  8  to  16  inches 
long.  A  Ughter  variation  of  the  bull  tongue  is  known  as  the 
"calf  tongue,"  which  is  only  about  2  inches  wide  and  which  is 
designed  for  use  on  a  bent  leg.  Another  suitable  form  of  shovel 
for  such  a  frame  is  known  as  a  "twister."  This  is  about  6  inches 
wide  by  12  long  and  bears  a  3-  or  4-inch  wing  which  serves  the 
same  purpose  as  the  mould  board  on  a  turning  plow.  The  wing 
may  be  either  right  or  left  turning. 

The  best  2-horse  turning  plow  for  trail  work  is  what  is  com- 
monly known  as  a  "side-hill  "  or  "'  hillside  "  plow.  The  land- 
side  and  mould  board  are  so  constructed  that  either  may  be 
used  as  the  other  simply  by  reversing  their  positions.  They 
are  released  by  raising  a  lock  that  holds  them  in  position  for 
plowing  and  can  easily  be  turned  by  allowing  the  team  to  tip 
the  plow  as  the  turn  is  made  for  cutting  the  next  furrow.  The 
lock  is  fastened  before  the  furrow  is  started.  Constructed  in 
this  manner,  the  plow  may  be  used  to  throw  dirt  down-hill  in 
plowing  in  either  direction  along  the  trail. 

If  a  side-hill  plow  is  not  available,  then  an  Oliver  chilled  No.  13 
turning  plow  is  recommended.  This  will  cut  a  clean  8-inch 
strip  without  difficulty,  is  light,  and  can  be  easily  handled  on 
steep  hillsides,  and  will  be  found  preferable  to  heavier  plows 
cutting  wider  furrows.  It  is  especially  suitable  for  work  in 
ground  full  of  stones  and  roots.  The  share  fastens  to  the  frog 
with  only  one  bolt,  and  this  is  threaded  in  such  a  way  that  the 
tap  must  be  turned  to  the  left  to  be  tightened.     Being  threaded 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  57 

in  this  manner  the  tap  is  tightened  rather  than  loosened  if  it 
accidentally  slides  along  on  rough  ground.  Another  advantage 
of  this  plow  is  that  when  dull,  the  share,  being  chilled,  may  be 
sharpened  by  chipping  it  with  a  hammer,  the  blows  being 
directed  against  the  edge  in  line  with  the  upper  surface,  thus 
breaking  the  chips  from  the  upper  side  and  bevehng  the  share 
so  it  will  feed  into  rather  than  out  of  the  ground.  If  the  chips 
are  knocked  from  the  under  side  of  the  share  the  bevel  will  be 
reversed  and  the  plow  will  jump  or  feed  upward.  The  share 
cannot  be  heated  and  beaten  out  to  a  thin  edge. 

Another  form  of  2-horse  plow  very  suitable  for  rough  work, 
and  especially  effective  in  breaking  out  roots  and  small  boulders, 
is  known  as  a  "coulter."  It  consists  simply  of  a  pointed  steel 
leg,  square,  round,  or  shaped  like  a  knife-blade,  thrust  through  the 
beam  and  used  in  breaking  ground.  It  is  designed  only  for  break- 
ing hard  or  rough  ground  and  cannot  be  used  in  moving  dirt. 

In  using  any  form  of  plow  in  ground  w^here  roots  or  stones 
may  be  encountered  frequently  the  plowman  must  exercise  great 
care  in  avoiding  broken  root  ends  as  they  snap  back  from  the 
plow.  Carelessness  in  this  respect  may  result  in  severe  injuries 
to  or  even  fractures  of  the  legs.  He  should  also  walk  behind 
rather  than  between  the  handles,  since  these  are  often  forced 
suddenly  sidewise  or  upward  or  downward  as  the  plow-point 
strikes  stones  or  slips  over  or  under  roots,  and  at  such  times 
may  inflict  painful  or  even  dangerous  injuries  on  the  body.  He 
should  also  remember  that  a  bull  tongue,  twister,  or  coulter  is 
so  constructed  that  it  is  lowered  into  the  ground  by  downward 
pressure  on  the  handles  and  is  released  by  raising  the  handles, 
while  a  turning  plow,  being  fitted  with  a  long  point,  landside,  and 
share,  can  be  forced  into  the  ground  with  much  less  difficulty 
if  the  handles  are  gradually  forced  slightly  upward  or  toward 
the  side  on  which  the  landside  works,  which,  in  a  regulation 
turning  plow  is  to  the  plowTnan's  left.  The  plow  can  be  released 
quickly  and  easily  by  sudden  downward  pressure  on  the  handles 
or  by  turning  the  plow  sidewise  and  downward  on  the  share 
side.  The  latter  operation  can  be  performed  without  difficulty 
by  seizing  the  left  handle  with  both  hands  and  thrusting  the 
plow  to  the  right. 

The  lateral  direction  and  the  depth  to  which  a  turning  plow 
may  be  made  to  run  in  rough  ground  is  regulated  to  a  certain 
extent  by  means  of  the  double  clevis  fitted  to  the  end  of  the 


58    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

beam  and  supplied  as  a  means  of  attachment  for  the  double 
tree.  This  is  known  as  an  "end  clevis"  or  a  "plow  clevis." 
On  steel-beam  plows  the  part  attached  to  the  beam  is  in  two 
pieces,  one  piece  fitting  to  each  side  of  the  beam.  For  a  wooden 
beam  it  is  made  in  one  piece  and  to  fit  over  the  end  of  the  beam. 
At  the  forward  and  perpendicular  end  a  number  of  holes,  one 
below  the  other,  provide  means  for  attaching  that  part  of  the 
clevis  which  fastens  to  the  double  tree,  and  it  is  by  means  of 
these  holes  that  depth  is  gauged.  Hitcliing  into  the  lowest 
hole  serves  to  raise  the  point  of  the  plow  and  thus  permits 
shallow  plo\\ing,  while  hitching  into  the  upper  hole  forces  the 
point  do\\Tiward  and  allows  deeper  plowing.  Intermediate 
depths  are  provided  for  by  the  other  holes.  Lateral  direction 
may  be  gauged  by  attaching  the  double  tree  to  the  horizontal 
part  of  the  end  clevis.  Hitching  into  the  hole  farthest  to  the 
left  forces  the  plow  to  the  right  and  causes  it  to  "cut  narrow." 
Using  the  hole  farthest  to  the  right  makes  the  plow  *'take  to 
land  "  and  cut  wide,  or  "cut  and  cover,"  this  term  applying 
to  work  in  which  a  narrow  strip  of  uncut  ground  is  left  between 
furrows  and  covered  over  with  fresh  dirt. 

In  making  the  turn  at  the  end  of  a  furrow  preparatorj^  to  cut- 
ting the  next  furrow,  a  turning  plow  should  not  be  sUd  along  on 
the  edge  of  the  share.  If  it  must  be  shd  at  all  it  should  either 
be  slid  on  the  heel  of  the  landside,  which  is  made  extra  heavy 
for  this  use,  or  else  thrown  completely  over  on  its  left  side  and 
dragged.  Dragged  in  this  manner  it  is  always  in  such  a  position 
that  it  may  be  easily  set  upright  by  seizing  the  upper  or  right 
handle  with  the  right  hand  and  raising  the  other  handle  to  the 
left  hand. 

A  bull  tongue,  twister,  or  coulter,  having  no  long  horizontal 
point,  share,  or  landside,  may  be  turned  about  on  the  point  as 
on  a  pivot. 

In  turning  any  plow  sufficient  downward  pressure  should  be 
apphed  to  the  handles  to  raise  the  end  of  the  beam  to  a  point 
where  it  will  hold  the  double  and  single  trees  high  enough  to 
prevent  the  animals  from  stepping  over  or  entangling  .hem- 
selves  in  the  traces.  Turning  may  also  be  facilitated  by  tipping 
the  beam  away  from  the  team  after  it  has  been  raised. 

Weights  placed  on  a  turning  plow  to  assist  in  holding  it  in 
rough  ground  should  be  attached  near  the  end  of  the  beam 
rather  than  over  the  leg.     When  they  are  placed  on  bull  tongues, 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  59 

twisters,  or  coulters  they  should  be  fastened  immediately  over 
the  leg. 

Plowing  in  very  rough  ground  will  be  found  much  easier  if 
one  man  ch-ives  while  the  other  holds  the  plow.  The  driver 
should  keep  his  animals  under  complete  control,  should  hold 
them  to  a  slow,  steady  walk,  avoid  exciting  them,  and  before 
starting  them  again  should  give  them  ample  time  in  which  to 
regain  their  footing  and  equihbrium  after  the  plow  has  been 
brought  to  a  standstill  by  contact  wdth  a  root  or  boulder.  The 
sudden  violent  jars  transmitted  to  the  animals  when  the  plow 
suddenly  strikes  a  stationary  object  is  not  only  severely  painful 
and  nerve-VkTacking,  but  may  even  so  irritate  a  team  that  proper 
management  is  a  difficult  matter.  It  is  therefore  imperative 
that  the  collars  fit  properly,  that  all  parts  of  the  harness  are 
substantial  and  properly  adjusted,  and  that  careful  horseman- 
ship be  observed  in  all  respects.  Excited  or  irritated  animals 
should  be  given  a  complete  rest  while  the  driver  and  plowman 
turn  their  attention  to  other  lines  of  work,  such  as  removing 
roots,  stones,  or  brush. 

Graders. — Trails  are  so  seldom  constructed  in  coimtry  where 
graders  can  be  used  that  these  implements  will  not  be  discussed 
here. 

Picks. — Common  "railroad  "  picks,  weighing  about  five  or  six 
pounds,  fitted  \sdth  34-inch  handles,  and  costing  from  fifty  cents 
to  a  dollar  each,  including  cost  of  the  handle,  will  be  found  very 
effective  in  loosening  dirt,  but  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  in 
removing  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  supply  several  extra 
handles  for  the  crew,  many  members  of  which  are  often  found 
to  exercise  little  or  no  judgment  in  their  use  of  a  tool  or  tools. 
Handles  cost  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents. 

Mattocks. — These  should  have  16-inch  blades  with  6-  or 
S-inch  axes  and  should  never  be  used  in  extremely  hard  or 
stony  ground  They  are  designed  primarily  for  dirt-moving 
rather  than  loosening.  They  weigh  and  cost  about  the  same 
as  picks. 

They  will  be  found  especially  suitable  for  grubbing  out  roots, 
cutting  brush  beneath  the  gi-ound  surface,  and  taking  out  roots 
and  stumps  along  the  bank. 

Combined  Picks  and  Mattocks. — As  their  name  indicates, 
these  are  so  constructed  as  to  provide  a  pick  and  mattock  in 
one  tool,  and  if  limited  funds  demand  strict  economy  in  the 


60 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


purchase  of  tools  their  use  is  recommended  in  preference  either 
to  picks  or  mattocks.  They  can  be  used  with  equal  success  as 
either,  are  strong  and  durable,  and  weigh  and  cost  about  the 
same  as  picks. 


Railroad  pick. 


ISIattock. 


Combined  pick  and  mattock. 


Pick  or  mattock  handle. 


Grubbing  hoe  handle. 


Planter's  hoe  handle. 
Fig.  47. 


Grubbing  Hoes. — A  heavy  grubbing  hoe  may  also  be  used 
effectively  in  cutting  roots  and  brush  and  moving  loose  material. 
They  are  heavier  and  more  durable  than  mattocks  and  can  be 
used  to  better  advantage  in  hard  or  stony  ground.  They 
should  weigh  not  less  than  three  and  one-half  pounds,  should 
be  of  forged  steel,  fitted  with  an  adze  eye  and  a  36-inch  bent 
handle,  and  should  cut  33^  inches.  Their  cost,  including  that 
of  the  handle,  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  a  pick. 

A  hght  variety,  having  a  thinner  but  much  wider  blade,  and 
known  variously  as  ''planter's,"  "cotton,"  "hazel,"  and  "eye" 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


61 


hoe,  made  for  use  on  a  4-,  5-,  or  6-foot  handle,  will  be  found  very 
effective  for  cutting  grass  roots  and  fine  brush  or  in  leveling 


Grubbing.  Planter's. 

Fig.  48. — Hoes. 

uneven   ground.     They   cost   somewhat   less   than   the   heavier 
grubbing  hoes. 

Shovels. — Shovels  for  general  use  should  be  fitted  with  long 
handles  and  should  not  exceed  five  pounds  in  weight.     Blades 


D-handled  shovel. 

(Socket  shank.) 

Fig.  49. — Long-handled  shovels. 


Strap  shank. 


should  be  about  9  by  12  inches  in  size  and  should  bear  socket 
shanks  in  preference  to  strap  shanks,  new  handles  being  fitted 
in  the  former  with  much  less  difficulty  than  in  the  latter.  The 
cost  is  shghtly  more  than  for  strap  shanks,  but  such  shovels 
prove  much  more  economical  in  the  long  run.  The  cost  varies 
from  sixty-five  cents  to  SI. 25. 


62 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


At  least  one  short  D-handled  shovel  should  be  provided  each 
crew  for  work  in  close  quarters  where  a  long  handle  cannot  be 
used  to  advantage,  such  as  in  work  about  stumps  or  boulders 
or  along  ditches  and  banks.  It  weighs  somewhat  less  than  the 
long-handled  variety,  but  the  size  and  cost  are  about  the  same 
A  socket  shank  is  recommended. 

Pinch  Bars. — These  implements,  if  fitted  with  wedge  points, 
are  known  as  "crow"  bars,  but  if  beveled  only  on  one  side  of 
the  point  have  "pinch"  points  and  are  known  as  "pinch"  bars. 
The  pinch  point  renders  them  more  effective  than  a  wedge  point 
in  forcing  them  under  and  prying  up  heavy  boulders,  and  they 


Crowbar. 


Pinch  bar. 
Fig.  50. 


will  be  found  more  generally  satisfactory  than  crowbars.  They 
should  be  5  or  53^2  feet  long  and  should  weigh  about  twenty 
pounds.     The  cost  varies  from  seventy-five  cents  to  $1,25. 

Rakes. — These  will  be  found  very  useful  in  levehng  the  tread 
and  in  removing  gravel  and  fine  brush  from  the  trail.  Asphalt 
rakes,  which  have  extra  long  shanks  fitted  into  heavy  handles, 
will  be  found  most  suitable  for  rough  trail  work.  They  weigh 
approximately  four  pounds  and  cost  from  fifty  cents  to  one 
dollar. 

Axes. — A  description  of  the  best  axes  for  general  trail  work 
will  be  found  on  page  170. 

Bush  Hooks. — These  should  be  about  12  inches  long  over  all, 
should  have  2-inch  blades  and  6-inch 
cutting  edges,  and  should  be  made  to 
attach  to  regulation  bush  snathes. 
They  will  be  found  very  effective  for 
use  in  cutting  out  tangles  of  briars, 
dense  thickets,  and  other  growths  not 
easily  reached  with  the  ax.  Made  of 
a  good  quahty  of  tempered  steel,  they 
weigh  about  one  pound  and  cost  from  fifty  cents  to  one 
dollar. 


Fig.  51. — Bvish  hook. 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  63 

Brush  Forks. — Ordinary  hay  forks,  or  "  pitch  "  forks,  will 
prove  very  satisfactory  in  removing  or  piling  fine  brush,  such 
as  brambles,  sage  brush,  buck  brush,  and  small  seedhngs. 
They  should  have  5-foot  handles,  three  12-inch  tines,  and  sub- 
stantial ferrules  fitted  over  the  sockets.  They  weigh  about 
three  pounds  and  cost  from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar. 


Fig.  52. — Brush  fork. 

Use  of  Picks,  Mattocks,  and  Other  Tools. — About  the  first 
request  made  of  a  new  man  in  any  large  construction  gang 
employed  in  grading  work  where  men  must  work  close  abreast 
of  each  other  is  to  refrain  from  swinging  the  tool  he  is  using, 
and  thereby  avoid  the  possibihty  of  inflicting  injuries  on  his 
fellow  workmen.  Picks,  mattocks,  grubbing  hoes,  axes,  sledges, 
and  all  other  tools  ordinarily  swung  to  one  side  in  using,  must, 
in  crowded  work,  be  raised  straight  up  and  dropped  without 
any  swing  whatever.  The  practice  of  deUvering  a  long,  violent, 
swinging  blow  at  hard  or  stony  earth  is  to  be  avoided  at  any 
time.  It  is  not  only  wearing  on  the  workman,  but  in  the  majority 
of  cases  does  not  prove  more  effective  than  shorter  and  lighter 
blows.  Such  tools  are  not  made  for  work  that  requires  them 
to  be  used  with  such  force,  and  if  the  foreman  allows  his  men  to 
use  them  in  a  manner  not  provided  for  in  their  construction  he 
will  soon  find  his  repair  bill  out  of  all  proportion  to  other  expenses. 

In  average  hard  ground  the  workman  wiU  find  that  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  blows  per  minute  with  a  pick,  mattock,  or  hoe 
will  constitute  a  reasonable  rate  of  speed  in  labor  for  him  to 
maintain  throughout  an  eight-hour  day. 

Shovels  should  not  be  thrust  violently  against  boulders  or 
into  extremely  hard  ground,  nor  should  they  be  used  as  a  pinch 
bar  or  pick.  They  are  not  intended  for  such  use,  are  not  built 
to  withstand  such  treatment,  and  may  be  quite  easily  battered, 
bent,  or  broken. 


64    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

The. easiest  method  of  using  them  is  to  rest  the  lower  hand 
against  the  upper  side  of  the  corresponding  thigh  as  the  knee  is 
shghtly  bent,  bring  the  other  hand  close  in  against  the  right 
hip,  and  thrust  them  into  loose  dirt  by  inchning  the  body  side- 
wise  and  slightly  forward.  This  relieves  the  back  and  arms  of 
unnecessary  strain  by  providing  a  fulcrum,  through  the  medium 
of  the  thigh  first  mentioned,  against  wliich  the  loaded  shovel 
may  be  operated. 

A  workman  of  average  strength  and  endurance  shovehng  in 
this  manner  can  remove  on  an  average  of  ten  shovelfuls  per 
minute  and  throw  or  scatter  the  dirt  to  a  distance  of  from  6  to 
12  feet.  If  the  dirt  must  be  thrown  upward  to  about  the  same 
distance  the  rate  must  be  lowered  to  about  eight  or  nine  shovel- 
fuls per  minute. 

Care  of  Tools. — Each  man  should  be  required  to  take  his  tool 
or  tools  into  camp  with  him  at  the  end  of  the  day's  work  and 
to  see  that  they  are  in  proper  repair  for  use  the  next  day,  this 
rule  not  applying,  of  course,  to  plows  and  scrapers  if  these  are 
used. 

One  man  should  also  be  detailed  to  carry  in  the  extra  tools, 
his  own  tools  being  taken  care  of  by  one  of  the  other  men  if  the 
extras  are  so  numerous  or  heavy  as  to  make  this  arrangement 
desirable.  By  following  such  a  plan  of  caring  for  his  tools  the 
foreman  or  Forest  officer  in  charge  will  suffer  fewer  losses  through 
theft,  carelessness,  and  forgetfulness  than  if  the  tools  are  not 
so  taken  care  of. 

A  grindstone,  whetstone,  files,  and  a  portable  forge  should  be 
supplied  for  sharpening  purposes.  The  first  two  may  be  used 
in  sharpening  axes,  bush  hooks,  and  other  keen-edged  tools; 
blunt-edged  tools  may  be  filed;  and  the  forge  may  be  used  in 
heating  picks,  drills,  and  other  tempered  tools  for  sharpening. 

A  plow  to  be  left  unused  for  considerable  periods  should  never 
be  left  sticking  in  the  ground,  nor  should  it  be  removed  and 
carelessly  thrown  on  its  side  in  such  a  position  that  men  or 
animals  may  accidentally  injure  themselves  on  the  point,  the 
heel  of  the  share,  or  the  ends  of  the  handles.  It  should  be  set 
up  squarely  and  securely  and  all  exposed  cutting  or  turning 
portions  should  be  well  smeared  with  wagon-grease  to  prevent 
rusting.  This  precaution  often  obviates  the  necessity  for 
preliminary  plowing  through  sand  or  gravel  before  the  plow  will 
"scour."     All  taps  used  on  it,  especially  the  one  that  secures  the 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  65 

share  to  the  frog  of  an  OHver  chilled  plow,  should  be  kept  tight 
and  not  allowed  to  work  loose.  Single  and  double  trees  when 
not  in  use  should  be  laid  near  the  plow  or  kept  attached  to  it- 

The  brush  fork,  when  not  in  use,  should  be  set  securely  on 
the  tine  points,  and  in  such  a  place  that  in  their  work  men  or 
animals  will  not  accidentally  displace  it,  and  thus  provide  pos- 
sible means  of  injury  to  themselves. 

Rakes  should  either  be  set  away  in  a  safe  place  or  laid  teeth 
downward  where  men  and  animals  need  not  pass  over  them 
in  going  about  their  regular  work. 

Bed. — The  larger,  coarser  stones  removed  in  grading  and  not 
needed  in  retaining  walls  are  thrown  into  the  bed  first  and  are 
firmly  settled  and  packed  with  loose  dirt  before  filling  progresses 
further.  Smaller  stones,  coming  from  farther  up  on  the  bank, 
are  then  throwTi  in  and  hkewise  settled.  By  using  this  material 
at  such  a  time  it  is  not  only  removed  from  a  point  from  which  it 
might  otherwise  shde  into  the  trail,  but  it  is  also  utihzed  m  mak- 
ing a  substantial  bed.  Finally,  all  loose  material  is  removed 
from  the  upper  side  and  used  to  complete  the  bed  and  provide 
capping.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  brush,  stumps,  and 
old  logs  are  not  made  a  part  of  the  bed.  If  burif  •:i  in  the  bed 
they  will  soon  rot  and  leave  the  bed  full  of  "sink"  holes  or 
otherwise  in  bad  condition. 

Retaining  Walls. — Instances  may  occur  where  the  nature  of 
the  ground  to  be  worked  over  is  such  that  stone  for  retaining 
walls  cannot  be  secured  from  cuts  or  grades,  but  must  be  ob- 


FiG.  53. — Cross  sec- 
tion of  trail  showing 
construction  of  retaining  walls. 

tained  elsewhere.  In  that  event  the  man  in  charge  must  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  such  material  can  be  procured  and  put  in 
place  with  less  expense  than  would  be  required  in  grading  out  an 
extra  wide  bed  which  would  require  no  retaining  walls. 

In  any  case,  however,  retaining  walls  should  be  of  stone  and 
should  be  constructed  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  shown  in 
Fig.  53. 


66    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

The  larger,  heavier  stones  are  placed  on  a  firm  foundation 
along  the  lower  side  of  the  trail,  the  fighter  stones  being  used 
to  complete  the  upper  portions  of  the  walls. 

WaUs  should  be  drawn  in  slightly  toward  the  trail  as  they 
are  completed,  and  larger  stones  from  the  grade  are  then  drawn 
down  against  them.  They  are  thus  built  up  with  the  bed  in 
such  a  way  that  long  stones  may  be  used  in  tying  them  securely 
together,  thereby  aUowing  each  to  brace  the  other.  Loose  dirt 
is  throwTi  in  as  the  walls  are  built  up,  and  is  not,  as  may  be 
supposed,  kept  tiU  the  last  and  then  used  as  a  cap. 

Retaining  walls  may  also  be  required  along  the  upper  side  of 
a  trail  constructed  through  loose  slides  of  broken  rock. 

Logs  and  brush  should  not  be  used  for  wafi  material  unless 
it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  secure  stone.  They  are  subject  to 
decay  and  to  destruction  by  fire,  and  their  use  invariably  results 
in  increased  cost  of  maintenance. 

Switchbacks. — These  are  short  zigzag  lengths  of  trail  provided 
as  a  means  of  maintaining  as  nearly  as  possible  a  uniform  grade 
up  steep  slopes  and  long  sloping  ridges  knowTi  as  "  hog-backs," 
serving  much  the  same  purpose  as  landings  in  a  ffight  of  stairs 
where  horizontal  distance  is  so  fimited  that  uniform  continua- 
tion of  the  flight  in  the  same  direction  is  impossible.  They 
should  be  made  as  flat  as  possible  in  the  turn,  which  should  have 
a  minimum  width  of  4  feet,  and  which  should  be  protected  by  a 
log  or  a  guard-rail  so  placed  as  to  prevent  short  cuts  across  the 
turn  by  pack-  or  saddle-animals.  The  practice  of  building  them 
around  trees  or  high  stumps  is  to  be  avoided.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  their  frequent  use  is  unnecessary  if  proper  care  has 
been  taken  in  determining  the  grade  at  which  the  trail  is  to 
ascend.  Their  construction  materially  increases  the  total  cost 
of  a  trail  and  their  presence  renders  travel  more  difficult  than 
when  a  uniform  grade  is  maintained. 

Bridges  and  Culverts. — ^Since  their  construction  adds  materi- 
ally to  the  first  cost  of  trail  construction  and  subsequent  cost  of 
its  maintenance,  these  are  to  be  avoided  when  possible.  Deep 
canons  may  be  crossed  by  dropping  the  trail  to  the  stream  at 
a  point  suitable  for  a  ford  and  ascending  the  opposite  bank, 
thus  doing  away  with  the  need  of  a  bridge. 

However,  if  a  bridge  must  be  built,  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  it  is  erected  on  a  substantial  foundation  that  water  will 
not  weaken  or  remove.     If  the  field  man  understands  masonry, 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


67 


and  proper  material  and  sufficient  funds  are  available,  he  should 
by  all  means  construct  the  piers  and  abutments  either  of  stone 
or  concrete.  (For  Concrete  Construction,  see  pages  99  to  105, 
inclusive.) 

Less  permanent,  though  very  rehable,  piers  and  abutments 
may  be  made  by  laying  up  triangular  log  pens,  pinning  or  other- 
wise locking  the  corners  securely  together,  and  filling  the  pens 
with  loose  rock  or  heavy  boulders.  Corner  pins  may  be  of  iron 
or  wood,  but  if  the  latter  is  used  it  should  be  of  some  tough 
variety,  such  as  seasoned  hickory  or  oak,  that  will  not  decay 
quickly.  Pier  pens  should  be  placed  in  such  a  position  with 
reference  to  the  stream  flow  that  the  current  may  act  directly 
against  a  corner  rather  than  full  against  one  side. 

Bridges  not  to  exceed  20  or  24  feet  may  be  constructed  as 
shown  in  Fig.  54.     Over  this  length  and  of  comphcated  design 


Fig.  54. — Short  bridge. 


Fig.  55. — Method  of  guying 
bridge  "rafters." 
(End  elevation.) 


Fig.  56.— Log  Bridgs. 


their  construction  should  be  left  to  an  experienc(?d  bridge  builder 
and  will  not  be  discussed  here.  Side  braces  or  ''rafters"  may 
be  tied  together,  as  shown  in  Fig.  55,  the  tie  being  far  enough 
above  the  floor,  of  course,  to  allow  the  free  passage  of  vehif^les 
beneath  it. 

Bridges  to  be  built  across  permanent  streams  having  long 
sloping  banks  may  be  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  56.  None 
of  the  logs  should  be  less  than  10  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small 


68 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


end  and  all  should  be  perfectly  sound.  Abutments  should  have 
substantial  rock  foundations  that  water  will  not  undermine  or 
wash  out  and  the  logs  should  be  notched  into  each  other  pref- 
erably in  the  same  manner  in  which  house  logs  are  notched. 
See  Fig.  85.  The  sides  flare  outward  toward  the  rear,  and  when 
filled  wdth  rock  and  earth  serve  as  approaches.  If  the  sides 
next  the  stream  are  gradually  drawn  in  as  the  top  is  reached 
there  will  be  much  less  danger  of  their  collapsing  if  the  founda- 
tions are  disturbed. 

Culverts  should  always  be  of  stone  when  such  material  is 
available  and  may  be  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  57.     Other 


-^ 


m 


stone. 


Solid 
Eatth 


Corduroy  over  bog. 
Fig.  57. — Culverts. 


forms  of  culverts,  only  temporary  in  nature,  are  of  poles,  boxes, 
or  hollow  logs,  and  are  also  illustrated  in  the  same  figure.  Poles 
of  seasoned  aspen  or  quaking  asp  (Populus  tremuloides) ,  or  any 
of  the  cedars  or  junipers  having  a  top  diameter  cf  not  less  than 
8  inches,  will  be  found  quite  durable,  but  most  of  the  pines  may 
be  used  in  cases  of  emergency.  Such  structures  are  usually 
only  for  temporary  use  and  do  not  justify  heavy  expenditures 
for  material. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  69 

If  circumstances  prohibit  the  use  of  poles  a  very  good  sub- 
stitute may  be  had  by  the  use  of  puncheons.  These  are  merely 
portions  of  spht  logs  laid  flat  side  upward  and  used  in  lieu  of 
planks  or  heavy  timbers.  They  should  be  notched  till  they 
fit  securely  against  the  stringers. 

Box  culverts  should  be  of  seasoned  white  oak  (Quercus  alba) 
or  creosoted  pine,  and  should  be  not  less  than  8  by  12  inches  in- 
side, thus  requiring  the  use  of  four  2  by  12s.  A  stronger  box 
will  be  the  result  if  the  top,  or  floor,  plank  is  nailed  to  the  upper 
edges  of  the  side  planks.  It  is  also  advisable,  especially  when 
a  poor  grade  of  lumber  must  be  used,  to  cut  in  at  least  two 
2  X  4s  crosswdse  of  the  box  and  under  those  portions  of  the 
floor  plank  which  will  be  subjected  to  the  greatest  pressure. 
Set  edgewise  under  the  floor,  these  will  reduce  the  net  inside 
dimensions  to  8  by  8  inches,  but  this  size  will  be  found  sufficiently 
large  to  carry  any  ordinary  amount  of  drainage.  If  an  unusually 
large  amount  of  drainage  is  to  be  carried,  then  six  2  by  12s  should 
be  used  and  a  box  12  by  20  inches  made.  Such  a  culvert,  of 
course,  requires  crosspieces  under  the  floor  planks,  but  in  a  box, 
say  6  feet  long,  three  2  by  4s  laid  flatwise  wiU  be  of  sufficient 
strength  to  support  all  ordinary  traffic. 

Laid  in  this  manner,  the  crosspieces  reduce  the  net  inside 
dimensions  to  10  by  20  instead  of  only  8  by  20  inches. 

Hollow  log  culverts  of  sycamore  or  buttonwood  (Platanus 
occidentalis)  and  black  gum  or  tupelo  {Nyssa  sj/lvatica)  are  widely 
used  in  the  South  and  Southeast,  being  placed  not  only  in  trails 
but  in  many  of  the  country  roads  as  well.  The  material  is  quite 
durable,  and  such  culverts  often  remain  in  good  repair  for  ten 
or  fifteen  years  or  more.  However,  this  timber  is  not  available 
in  most  parts  of  the  West. 

Corrugated  iron  piping,  or  terra  cotta  tifing  used  for  culverts, 
should  be  at  least  8  inches  in  diameter  inside.  The  most  wddely 
used  size  is  only  6  inches,  but  such  pipes  clog  too  easily  to  prove 
satisfactory  for  culverts. 

Corduroy. — This  is  a  form  of  artificial  bed  provided  as  a 
means  of  crossing  bog-holes  in  a  trail,  and  is  also  one  form  of 
construction  used  in  culverts  or  small  bridges  of  minor  impor- 
tance. Used  across  bogs,  it  consists  merely  of  numerous  small 
logs  or  large  poles  laid  crosswise  of  the  trail  and  capped  usually 
with  dirt  or  gravel.  For  deep  bogs  it  may  be  made  more  sub- 
stantial by  first  placing  heavy  logs,   even   12  or  16  inches  in 


70     HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

diameter,  at  the  bottom,  lighter  logs  being  laid  at  right  angles 
across  these.  If  necessary  a  third  tier  is  placed  at  right  angles 
across  the  second. 

.  Frequently  only  two  or  three  stringer  logs  will  be  found  nec- 
essary for  the  foundation,  corduroy  being  placed  on  these  to 
serve  as  a  bed.  Ordinarily,  if  capping  is  to  be  from  4  to  8 
inches  thick,  no  other  fastenings  will  be  required  to  hold  the 
corduroy  in  place.  If  necessary,  however,  it  may  be  pinned 
to  the  stringers  with  wooden  pins  or  toe-nailed  with  60-D 
spikes. 

Drain  Ditches. — Ditches  of  adequate  size  to  prevent  the  tread 
being  flooded  should  be  provided  at  all  points  along  important 
trails  where  flooding  is  hkely  to  occur.  They  may  be  cut  into 
the  bank  above  or  into  the  ground  alongside  the  trail,  or,  in 
case  only  a  limited  amount  of  drainage  is  to  be  carried,  may 
be  cut  directly  against  the  upper  side  of  the  trail. 

If  di'ainage  is  to  be  conveyed  across  the  trail,  side  ditches 
should  be  continued  to  points  suitable  as  locations  for  culverts 
or  water  bars,  the  latter  being  merely  logs  of  sufficient  length 
and  size  to  direct  the  flow  across  the  trail  after  they  have  been 
set  into  the  ground  diagonally  to  the  fine  of  travel. 

Proper  drainage  is  absolutely  essential  to  economical  main- 
tenance of  a  trail,  and  carelessness  in  construction  in  this  re- 
spect may  later  prove  responsible  for  complete  abandonment 
of  the  trail.  Continued  travel  tends  to  settle  and  otherwise 
displace  the  capping  material  until,  if  proper  drainage  facihties 
have  not  been  provided,  water  flows  directly  down  the  middle 
of  the  tread  and  soon  cuts  an  impassable  ditch. ^ 

Tread. — The  tread  of  a  trail  is  that  portion  of  it  which  is 
exposed  to  travel,  and  upon  its  width  depends  the  greater  por- 
tior,  of  the  cost  of  construction  and  maintenance.  Its  proper 
consideration  in  the  prehminary  survey  is,  therefore,  of  the 
greatest  importance  and  must  be  given  close  attention. 

In  any  trail,  regardless  of  its  classification,  per  cent  of  grade, 
or  any  other  particularly  important  characteristic,  costs  in  con- 
struction and  maintenance  wiU  be  materially  reduced  if  the 

^  In  all  parts  of  the  coiintry,  and.  especially  in  the  rural  districts 
or  in  sparsely  settled  regions,  will  be  found  roads  and  trails  which 
have  been  "set  over"  time  after  time  as  each  new  route  has  been 
allowed  to  wash  out  and  become  impassable,  the  final  result  being  a 
series  of  parallel  ditches  none  of  which  can  be  used  as  a  path  of  travel. 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  71 

width  of  the  tread  is  kept  at  a  minimum,  this  point  in  construc- 
tion applying  with  equal  force  to  trails  in  classes  A,  B,  and  C. 

Quite  naturally  it  would  seem  to  the  inexperienced  trail- 
builder  that  a  class  A  trail,  which  might  have  a  uniform  grade 
as  low  as  6  per  cent,  and  which  eventually  might  be  recon- 
structed into  an  unusually  good  wagon  road,  should  have  an 
extra  wide  tread.  The  mere  fact,  however,  that  it  has  the  low 
grade  is  sufficient  justification  for  a  narrow  tread,  because  the 
disadvantages  of  a  narrow  tread  are  offset  by  the  low  grade; 
and  as  for  being  rebuilt  as  a  road,  he  should  remember  that  the 
way  is  a  trail  first  and  may  possibly  be  a  road  later. 

The  maximum  tread  seldom  need  exceed  3  feet,  and  except 
in  short  switchbacks  can  usually  be  much  less.  The  minimum 
for  trails  of  Httle  importance  should  be  about  15  inches. 

Capping. — This  term  refers  to  the  material  used  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  trail  or  road  and  is  known  in  many  locahties  as  the 
"  crowTi,"  "  top,"  or  "top  dressing."  It  should  be  hard  and 
compact,  free  from  large  stones,  and  of  a  nature  that  prevents 
its  ready  removal  by  traffic. 

For  instance:  Very  dry  adobe  forms  a  fine  dust  which  may 
be  kicked  or  blowTi  from  the  trail  in  large  quantities.  When 
thoroughly  wet  it  forms  a  stiff  mud,  through  which  progress 
can  be  made  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  and  holes  or  ruts 
made  by  pack-  or  saddle-animals  do  not  fill  in  but  remain  as 
such,  and  after  the  adobe  begins  to  dry  out  present  a  surface 
even  more  difficult  to  travel  than  one  full  of  large  stones.  Ob- 
viously, such  material  is  unfit  for  capping.  Loam  is  but  little 
better — as,  in  fact,  are  most  other  loose  soils,  the  yellow  clay 
common  to  the  South  and  Southeast  being  especially  unsatis- 
factory in  wet  weather. 

The  best  capping  is  of  coarse  sand  or  fine  gravel,  disintegrated 
granite  being  exceptionally  suitable.  Crushed  rock,  slag,  and 
cinders  are  also  good,  and  sawdust  or  rotten  wood  can  be  used 
to  good  advantage  over  permanently  wet  stretches  of  trail. 

^Miatever  material  is  used  for  capping  should  be  thick  enough 
to  present  a  substantial  surface  for  travel  and  should  be  graded 
enough  higher  in  the  center  than  at  the  sides  to  allow  ample 
slope  for  drainage  of  all  rain  or  snow  that  mey  fall  upon  it. 

Blazes. — The  standard  blaze  used  by  the  Forest  Service  in 
marking  trails  is  not  less  than  8  inches  long,  is  cut  through  the 
bark  into  the  sapwood,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  horizontal 


72  HANDBOOK    FOR    RA.NGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

notch  cut  directly  above  it.  These  blazes  are  made  in  trees 
growing  at  such  points  along  a  trail  that  at  least  one  blaze  is 
always  visible  to  the  traveler  as  he  proceeds  in  either  direction. 
Ordinarily  trees  along  both  sides  of  a  completed  trail  are  blazed 
both  fore  and  aft;  but  if  hmited  time  for  construction  renders 
such  blazing  impractical,  they  are  often  blazed  on  one  side  only 
and  in  such  a  manner  that  in  proceeding  along  the  trail  in  either 
direction  the  traveler  always  observes  the  blazes  to  his  right. 
Later,  other  blazes  are  made  as  required. 

The  foreman  or  officer  in  charge  of  construction  should  see 
that  large,  ragged,  unsightly  blazes  are  avoided.  Where  a  trail 
crosses  open  country  wath  Uttle  or  no  grading,  he  should  also  see 
that  its  course  is  plainly  marked  either  by  means  of  rock  monu- 
ments or  by  guide-posts  and  boards.  Intersecting  or  branch 
trails  should  be  indicated  by  guide-boards  showing  directions 
and  distances  to  important  points.  Specifications  for  such 
boards  w411  be  furnished  field  men  upon  apphcation  to  the 
proper  office. 

ROCK  DRILLING 

Effective  rock  drilling  is  possible  only  when  properly  sharp- 
ened and  tempered  drills  are  used.  However,  volumes  might 
be  written  on  the  subjects  of  sharpening  and  tempering  steel, 
and  still  the  inexperienced  person  would  not  secure  sufficiently 
definite  information  to  justify  him  in  attempting  the  operations. 
Therefore,  they  will  not  be  discussed  here.  It  is  suggested,  how- 
ever, that  where  considerable  driUing  must  be  done  the  field 
officer  in  charge  of  the  work  should  secure  the  services  of  a  man 
famifiar  wdth  the  work  of  sharpening  and  tempering.  Even  if 
Buch  a  person  demands  a  higher  rate  of  pay  than  other  members 
of  the  crew,  his  services  wiU  prove  proportionately  more  valuable. 

Single  Jacking. — This  method  of  drilling  is  employed  when 
shallow  holes  are  to  be  bored.  One  man  performs  both  opera- 
tions of  holding  and  striking  the  drill  and  otherwise  sees  that 
the  hole  is  properly  sunk.  A  single  jack  should  not  weigh  more 
than  three  and  one-half  or  four  pounds. 

Double  Jacking. — Two  men  are  employed  in  this  work,  one 
holding  the  drill  in  position  while  the  other  strikes  it  with  a 
sledge  known  as  a  "  double  jack,"  and  which  usually  weighs 
from  six  to  twelve  pounds  or,  in  some  instances,  more.  In  order 
to  get  the  best  results,  either  man  should  be  experienced  both 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  73 

in  holding  and  in  striking  the  drill.  Such  men,  however,  are 
not  always  available,  and  it  may  be  found  necessary  on  such 
occasions  to  teach  certain  members  of  the  crew  how  these 
operations  are  performed. 

The  one  who  is  to  hold  the  drill  should  seat  himself  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  bring  the  drill  between  his  knees,  where,  by  the 
use  of  both  hands,  he  can  hold  it  in  the  required  position.  It 
need  not  be  gripped  more  tightly  than  is  necessary  to  hold  it  in 
position  unless  it  is  of  such  Ught  material  that  blows  from  the 
double  jack  produce  violent  lateral  vibrations  in  it.  In  such  a 
case  a  tighter  grip  is  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  the  severe 
jars  which  otherwise  result  to  the  hands. 

Immediately  after  a  blow  has  been  dehvered,  and  while  the 
double  jack  is  being  raised  for  another,  the  drill  should  be  raised 
sUghtly,  turned  part  way  around,  and  then  settled  back  against 
the  bottom  of  the  bore-hole.  If  it  has  been  unevenly  dressed 
or,  instead  of  being  turned  on  the  center,  is  merely  moved  at  one 
corner  of  the  bit,  a  triangular  rather  than  a  round  hole  will  be 
the  result,  and  cutting  wiU  be  retarded  as  the  result  of  extra 
labor  imposed  upon  the  striker  in  cutting  the  three  corners. 
Ordinarily,  such  holes  are  the  result  of  an  attempt  by  the  man 
holding  the  drill  to  avoid  the  labor  incident  to  raising,  turning, 
and  settling  the  drill,  but  the  advantages  gained  in  this  respect 
are  more  than  offset  by  the  striker's  extra  labor. 

By  turning  the  driU  after  each  blow  of  the  double  jack  the 
edge  of  the  bit  is  brought  diagonally  across  the  last  groove  cut 
and  the  shoulders  of  this  are  chipped  away,  thus  facihtating 
sinking. 

The  man  holding  the  drill  should  keep  his  hat-brim  pulled 
well  down  over  his  eyes,  should  keep  his  face  turned  dowTiward, 
and  should  never  watch  the  drill-head.  Blows  from  the  double 
jack  may  cause  this  to  sUver  or  splinter,  and  fragments  of  steel 
are  often  throwTi  off  as  if  shot  from  a  gun.  The  striker,  how- 
ever, whose  face  and  hands  are  above  the  drill-head,  is  not  sub- 
jected to  this  danger  and  should  watch  the  drill-head  continu- 
ously. This  permits  him  to  observe  any  sudden  change  of  the 
drill's  location  and  to  manage  the  double  jack  accordingly. 

If  for  any  reason  the  drill  sticks  or  hangs  and  can  not  be 
turned  between  blows  of  the  double  jack,  the  man  holding  it 
should  make  this  fact  known  to  the  striker  immediately.  Mean- 
while he  should  not  attempt  to  loosen  the  drill  by  moving  or 


74    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

shaking  it  about  in  the  bore-hole  until  he  has  assured  himself 
that  the  striker  knows  he  must  stop  striking.  This  is  usually 
done  with  the  interjection  "  Mud!  "  which  all  experienced  drillers 
imderstand  to  mean  that  operations  are  to  be  temporarily 
suspended. 

Water  poured  into  the  bore-hole  will  not  only  serve  to  prevent 
the  drill  bit  from  heating,  but  will  also  facilitate  cutting.  The 
man  holding  the  drill  may  protect  himself  from  spattering  by 
placing  an  old  grain  sack  loosely  about  the  drill  at  the  top  of 
the  bore-hole. 

Chum  Drilling. — This  operation  is  performed  by  means  of  a 
long  drill,  used,  in  most  cases,  by  two  men  and  heavy  enough 
to  obviate  the  necessity  for  using  a  sledge.  It  is  simply  raised 
and  then  forced  violently  against  the  bottom  of  the  bore-hole, 
cutting  the  same  as  if  driven  with  a  sledge.  It  is  especially 
convenient  in  drilling  into  upright  faces  of  rock. 

Removing  the  Cuttings. — Cuttings  are  removed  from  the  bore- 
hole with  a  long,  slender  tool  known  as  a  "  spoon."  However, 
if  no  spoon  is  available  the  cuttings  may  be  "  swabbed  out  "  by 
means  of  a  stick,  preferably  of  some  hard,  tough  wood,  beaten 
into  spUnters  at  one  end.  This  end  is  thrust  into  the  cuttings 
and  twisted  about  till  the  brush  is  filled.  After  removing  it 
■from  the  bore-hole  the  stick  is  rapped  sharply  against  the  drill 
or  a  stone,  and  is  thus  reUeved  of  the  cuttings. 

BLASTING 

The  construction  of  permanent  improvements,  such  as  roads, 
trails,  and  telephone  lines,  often  requires  the  use  of  explosives, 
and  unless  the  new  field  man  has  had  previous  experience  in 
their  use  he  should  place  a  competent  man  in  charge  of  blast- 
ing operations  until  such  time  as  he  himself  may  have  become 
sufficiently  familiar  wdth  the  work  to  carry  it  on  with  a  mini- 
mum possibility  of  accidents. 

The  two  chief  forms  of  explosives  used  in  general  field  work 
are  dynamite  and  blasting  powder,  but  since  the  latter  is  used 
less  frequently  than  the  former  it  will  not  be  discussed  here. 
Electric  firing  of  blasts  is  seldom  practised  except  in  ditching 
through  loose  dry  dirt  or  gravel  and  occasionally  in  controlling 
severe  forest  fires.  The  inexperienced  man  is  seldom  required 
to  handle  such  work,  however,  and  for  that  reason  only  cap- 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  75 

and  fuse-firing  will  be  considered.  If  electric  firing  must  be 
done,  the  field  man  should,  consult  some  reliable  authority  on 
the  subject.^ 

Dynamite. — Composition. — This  is  composed  ot  nitro-glycerin 
mixed  with  sawdust,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  other  explosive  or 
absorbent  ingredients,  and  is  packed  into  cyhndrical  paper  shells 
forming  what  are  known  as  "  sticks  "  or  "  cartridges."  These 
are  8  inches  long  and  of  different  diameters,  the  standard  diam- 
eter, however,  being  l}/i  inches.  They  are  shipped  in  cases  of 
twenty-five  and  fifty  pounds. 

Strength. — The  strength  of  djTiamite  is  expressed  in  per  cent, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  explosive  regardless  of  the 
per  cent  of  nitro-glycerin  present,  and  is  known  as  "  20%," 
''  30%,"  or  whatever  the  strength  m.ay  be.  Straight  djTiamite 
is  made  in  strengths  from  20%  to  60%,  gelatin  from  35%  to 
75%,  and  blasting  gelatin  100%  only. 

Use  of  Different  Strengths. — The  required  strength  of  djma- 
mite  for  different  uses  may  be  determined  about  as  follows: 
For  shell  rock,  hard  clay,  frozen  earth,  log  spHtting,  ditching, 
grading,  or  other  light  work,  20%,  25%,  30%,  or  possibly  40%; 
for  quarry  use  where  stone  is  to  be  spht  but  not  shattered,  30%, 
33%,  and  40%;  for  stumps,  tree-felling,  ice,  and  medium  hard 
stone,  40%  and  50%;  and  for  extremely  hard  stone,  or  iron  or 
steel,  60%  straight  or  75%  gelatin. 

Blasting  powder,  aside  from  the  greater  inconvenience  en- 
countered in  using  it,  is  hardly  strong  enough  in  satisfactorily 
small  quantities  to  produce  the  desired  results  when  used  in  the 
work  just  mentioned.  It  may  be  used  to  convenience,  however, 
when  logs  are  to  be  spht  into  comparatively  regular  sections, 
such  as  for  cord  wood,  corral  timbers,  rails,  and  posts.  Blasting 
powder  for  such  work  should  be  of  FF,  FFF,  or  FFFF  granu- 
lation. 

Caps. — ^These  are  small  metal  tubes  closed  at  one  end  and  de- 
signed for  the  purpose  of  detonating  dynamite.  The  closed  end 
carries  a  small  quantity  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  which  explodes 
by  ignition,  the  concussion  thus  produced  detonating  the  dyna- 


^  See  "The  Farmer's  Handbook,"  published  by  the  E.  I.  du  Pont  de 
Nemours  Powder  Company,  Wilmmgton,  Delaware. 

See  also  "Handbook  of  JSIining  Details,"  published  by  JSIcGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  239  AVest  39th  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


76    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

mite.     They  are  classed  as  No.  6,  No.  7,  or  No.  8,  according  to 
the  amount  of  fuhninate  of  mercury  they  carry. 

Fuse. — This  is  flexible  tape-,  cotton-,  hemp-,  or  jute-covered 
tubing  carrying  powder  used  to  convey  a  flame  to  the  fulminate 
charge  in  the  cap.  The  different  grades  are:  Plain  hemp  for 
very  dry  work;  single  tape  for  damp  work;  double  tape  for 
wet  work;  and  triple-tape  or  gutta-percha  covered  for  use  in 
water.  It  comes  in  double  rolls  each  50  feet  long,  one  fitting 
closely  inside  the  other.  Ordinarily  it  burns  at  the  rate  of  about 
2  feet  per  minute,  but  if  much  abraded  or  if  under  pressure,  as  in 
a  tightly  tamped  bore-hole,  the  rate  of  burning  will  be  increased 
and  may  even  reach  4  feet  per  minute.  It  should  be  stored 
in  a  cool,  dry  place  where  it  will  neither  become  dry  and  brittle 
nor  have  the  varnish  melted  ofT. 

Preparing  the  Charge. — Attaching  the  Cap  to  the  Fuse. — ^The 
required  length  of  fuse,  long  enough  to  allow  the  shot-firer  to 
retire  to  a  safe  distance  after  the  fuse  has  been  lighted  and  be- 
fore the  charge  explodes,  is  cut  squarely  off  from  the  roll.     An 
inch  or  two  should  be  cut  from  the  end  of  the  roll  first  and  dis- 
carded, as  the  fuse  is  constructed  of  such  material  that 
the  exposed  end  always  attracts  moisture.     If  in  cutting 
the  fuse  from  the  roU  the  fuse  end  is  flattened  it  should 
be  rolled  round  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  care  be- 
ing taken,  however,  to  see  that  none  of  the  powder  is 
allowed  to  escape.     This  end  is  then  held  in  a  vertical 
position  and  the  cap  is  fitted  down  over  it  as  sho-vvm  in 
Fig.  58  until  the  fulminate  charge  rests  firmly  against 
the  end  of  the  fuse.     In  doing  this  the  cap  must  not  be 
twisted  or  rotated  about  the  fuse,  as  the  charge  is  very 
sensitive  and   friction   against    it 
may  result  in  an  exj^losion.     The 
final     operation     is     known     as 
*'  crimping  "  the  cap,  and  consists 
in  crimping  or  creasing  it  about 
the  fuse  in  such  a  way  that  the 
two   are   held   securely   together. 
Fig.  58.  The  crimp  is  made  near  the  open 

end  of  the  cap  as  shown  in  the 
same  figure.  A  specially  designed  combination  crimper,  fuse 
cutter,  and  punch  is  manufactured  for  this  purpose  and  is  used 
as  shown  in  Fig.  59.     Many  blasters  crimp  with  a  piece  of  hard 


CONSTRUCTION    "WORK 


77 


sharp-edged  wood,  with  a  knife-blade,  or  with  their  teeth,  but 
none  of  these  methods  should  be  followed  unless  a  crimper  is  not 


Crimper. 


Fig.  59. 


Using  the  crimper. 


available.     In  any  event  crimping  with  the  teeth  is  a  practice 
to  be  avoided. 

Attaching  the  Cap  to  the  Cartridge. — Opinions  differ  as  to 
whether  the  cap  should  be  inserted  at  the  end  or  in  the  side 
of  the  cartridge.  The  latter  method, 
however,  is  a  much  safer  one  by  reason 
of  the  fact  that  it  not  only  leaves  the  entire 
end  of  the  cartridge  exposed  for  tamping, 
but  also  provides  a  cushion  of  d\Tiamite 
between  the  cap  and  the  end  of  the  tamp- 
ing stick. 

An  opening  is  made  in  the  cartridge 
by  means  of  the  round  handle  of  the 
crimper,  or,  if  no  crimper  is  available,  a  smooth  round  stick  of 
the  required  diameter  may  be  used.  Nails,  wire,  and  small  bolts 
should  never  be  used  for  this  purpose.  When  the  hole  has 
been  completed  the  cap  is  inserted  therein  as  sho\sTi  in  Fig.  60. 


Fig.  60. — Inserting  cap 
in  cartridge. 


Fig.  61. — Cord  about  fuse. 


Fig.  62. — Tying  the  fuse  into 
the  cartridge. 


A  strong  heavj^  thread  or  light  cord  is  then  tied  about  the  fuse 
as  in  Fig.  61,  and  finally  the  fuse  is  tied  securely  to  the  cartridge 
as  showTQ  in  Fig.  62. 


78    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

If  the  cap  is  to  be  inserted  in  the  end  of  the  cartridge  the 
paper  wrapping  is  unfolded  and  opened  at  that  end,  the  hole 
is  punched  and  the  cap  inserted,  and  the  wrapping  is  then 
closed  and  securely  tied  about  the  fuse. 

If  the  charge  is  to  be  placed  in  water  or  very  wet  earth  the 
connection  of  the  fuse  and  cap  with  the  cartridge  should  be 
well  covered  with  grease.  This  should  not  be  of  an  oily  nature 
or  it  may  pass  through  the  tape  and  into  the  filling  of  the  fuse. 

Loading. — This  operation,  which  is  also  known  as  "  charg- 
ing," consists  in  placing  the  cartridge  in  the  bore-hole  or  drill- 
hole. If  several  cartridges  are  to  be  used  in  the  same  hole  the 
one  bearing  the  cap,  which  is  known  as  the  "  primer,"  should 
be  placed  next  to  the  top  or  last  one  and  pressed  down  firinly. 
The  others  must  also  be  firmly  settled  into  the  hole,  and  this 
can  be  done  much  more  satisfactorily  if  their  wrappers  are  sUt 
through  lengthwise  once  or  twice.  This  allows  them  to  spread 
out  and  fill  the  hole  more  closely.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  each  cartridge  is  pressed  firmly  against  the  one  before  it 
and  that  no  vacant  spaces  are  left  between  them. 

Another  method  of  loading  where  only  one  cartridge  is  to  be 
used  in  a  hole  is  to  cut  the  cartridge  in  half,  lower  the  primed 
half  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  press  it  down  firmly,  and  then 
tamp  the  broken-up  remaining  haK  in  above  it.  Still  another 
method  is  to  lower  the  capped  fuse  into  the  hole  till  the  cap 
is  at  or  near  the  bottom  and  then  tamp  the  broken-up  cartridge 
about  it. 

The  last  method  is  especially  satisfactory  where  bore-holes 
are  so  smaU  that  cartridges  can  not  enter  readily.  They  should 
never  be  forced  into  a  bore-hole.  The  chief  disadvantage  of 
loading  in  this  manner  is  the  possibility  of  igniting  the  dynamite. 

Tamping. — -Iron  tamping  rods  should  never  be  used  when 
dynamite  is  to  be  tamped.  The  safest  method  of  tamping  is 
by  means  of  a  wooden  stick  cut  square  at  the  large  end  and  of 
a  diameter  small  enough  to  allow  it  to  enter  the  bore-hole  easily 
beside  the  fuse.  Fine  dry  dirt  should  be  used  for  tamping  and 
should  be  firmly  tamped  as  filling  progresses.  The  first  5  to 
6  inches  of  dirt  should  be  pressed  down  firmly  but  gently.  After 
that  greater  pressure  may  be  used  with  httle  danger,  but  it 
should  not  be  greater  than  that  made  possible  by  hand.  The 
hole  should  be  tamped  full  to  the  surface.  If  plenty  of  grease 
has  been  smeared  about  the  connection  of  the  cap  and  fuse 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  79 

vvith  the  cartridge,  water  will  also  make  fair  tamping,  but  the 
charge  must  be  fired  before  the  water  can  soak  into  it. 

Firing. — In  order  to  save  time  and  facilitate  operations  the 
foreman  should  have  other  members  of  his  crew  remove  tools 
and  other  equipment  to  a  safe  distance  while  the  shot-firer  is 
loading  and  preparing  the  charge  for  firing. 

The  fuse  end  should  be  spht  back  through  the  center  for  a 
distance  of  Y^  inch  in  order  to  expose  the  powder  and  allow 
the  flame  of  the  match  to  reach  it  without  delay.  Ignition  of 
the  powder  will  be  indicated  by  a  sudden  hissing  spurt  of  sparks 
and  flame,  and  the  shot-firer  should  not  leave  it  till  this  has 
occurred.  He  then  warns  other  members  of  the  crew  of  this 
fact  usually  by  calling,  '^  Fire  in  the  hole!  "  and  immediately 
retires  to  a  safe  distance.  Protection  from  flying  debris  should 
be  sought  behind  large  trees  or  boulders  where  the  bore-hole 
may  be  watched  and  where  an  unobstructed  view  of  faUing 
earth  and  stone  may  be  had.  Such  positions  should  if  possible 
be  selected  so  the  sun  and  wind  will  be  to  the  watchers'  backs. 

Misfires. — These  may  occur  as  the  result  of  broken,  defective, 
or  improperly  prepared  fuse,  defective  caps,  or  separation  of  the 
fuse  and  cap.  They  should  not  be  investigated  nor  worked  near 
for  at  least  an  hour  after  they  should  have  exploded,  and  if  con- 
ditions are  such  that  they  may  be  avoided  till  the  next  day 
the  safety  is  so  much  the  greater. 

The  practice  of  "  picking  out  "  or  removing  an  unexploded 
cartridge  from  a  bore-hole  with  intent  to  reload  and  fire  it  is 
not  safe,  although  in  many  instances  it  is  more  convenient  to 
remove  the  tamping  and  reprime  than  to  drill  and  charge  a  new 
hole.  If  the  "  missed  "  hole  is  shallow  enough  to  permit  the 
charge  being  seen  when  it  is  reached  there  is  httle  danger  of  an 
accident.  In  such  a  case  a  haK-cartridge  may  be  primed  and 
loaded  in  above  the  first  charge,  and  both  may  then  be  exploded. 

A  wise  precaution  to  observe  in  loading  shallow  holes  is  to  tamp 
a  crumpled  wad  of  paper  down  directly  against  the  charge.  If 
this  is  done  and  a  misfire  occurs  the  tamping  may  be  picked  out 
of  the  hole  with  Uttle  danger  of  picking  into  the  charge. 

Holes  so  deep,  however,  that  such  a  wad  of  paper  could  not  be 
seen  should  not  be  picked,  but  another  hole  should  be  drilled 
at  a  safe  distance  and  another  charge  fired.  In  removing  the 
broken-out  material  a  close  watch  should  be  kept  for  any  unex- 
ploded dynamite  that  was  placed  in  the  first  hole.     In  most  cases 


80    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

the  detonation  of  the  second  charge  will  also  result  in  the  explosion 
of  the  first. 

Blasting  Out  Boulders. — One  of  the  largest  items  in  the  cost 
of  construction  of  roads  and  trails  is  the  removal  of  large  boulders 
from  the  bed.  These  are  often  of  such  a  shape  and  nature  as 
to  prevent  their  removal  by  means  of  teams,  bars,  or  sledges,  and 
they  must  therefore  be  broken  up  with  explosives.  This  involves 
operations  that  are  not  at  first  sight  apparent  to  the  novice,  and 
unless  he  is  careful  to  adopt  the  most  effective  measures  he  may 
have  little  better  success  than  if  he  had  used  a  sledge. 

The  first  impuitant  thing  to  do  in  breaking  out  a  boulder  is 
to  obtain  a  general  knowledge  of  its  size  and  shape  and  the  depth 
to  which  it  may  be  imbedded.  This  can  be  done  by  shovehng 
away  the  dirt  at  the  edges  of  the  boulder  or  by  probing  around 
or  under  it  with  a  bar.  The  nature  of  the  ground  in  which  it 
is  imbedded  also  plays  an  important  part  in  the  work  of  its 
removal  and  must  be  carefully  considered  before  any  charges 
are  placed. 

The  three  chief  methods  used  in  breaking  out  boulders  follow: 

Mudcapping. — This  is  also  known  as  ''  blistering."  A  dyna- 
mite cartridge  is  stripped  of  its  wrapping  and  is  then  pulverized 


BlaBfing  Ca-p 
Dynamite - 


Mudcapping. 


and  laid  on  top  of  the  boulder  in  a  compact  pile.  The  cap  is 
placed  at  or  near  the  center  of  the  charge  and  the  whole  is  then 
covered  with  6  or  8  inches  of  very  damp  sand  or  stiff,  wet  clay. 
This  is  pressed  tightly  down  over  the  charge  and  serves  as 
tamping.     The  method  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  63. 

Blockholing. — This  method  of  breaking  out  a  boulder  is  shown 
in  Fig.  64,  and  is  also  known  as  "  spHtting."  Its  chief  dis- 
advantage lies  in  the  necessity  for  drilhng  one  or  more  holes 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


81 


in  the  boulder,  but  this  is  more  than  offset  by  the  much  more 
effective  resuUs  obtained.  In  order  to  concentrate  the  charge 
as  much  as  possible  the  cartridge  should  be  broken  up  and 


Tamping. 


■mt/M 

Fig.  64. — Blockholing. 


tamped  in  about   the   cap.     Later,   if  fragments  too  large   to 
handle  remain,  they  may  be  mudcapped. 

Snakeholing. — For  small  boulders  that  can  be  easily  removed 
after  having  been  broken  from  their  bed,  this  method,  also  known 
as  "  gophering,"  is  very  effective.     The  charge  should  be  placed 


Pu        i  Ti,l  t 

Fig.  65. — Snakeholing. 


directly  against  and  at  or  near  the  exact  center  of  the  under 
side.  It  must  be  well  tamped  and  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that 
it  is  not  placed  at  a  point  where  wet  or  soft  dirt  may  allow  the 
force  to  be  expended  downward  rather  than  upward  and  against 
the  boulder.  See  Fig.  65.  (For  Table  of  Blasting  Charges, 
see  page  369,  Appendix.) 

Blasting  Out  Trees  and  Stumps. — The  chief  trouble  in  this 
operation  usually  lies  either  in  the  fact  that  the  charge  is  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  a  hole  drilled  too  straight  down  and  not  under 


82 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


the  center  of  the  tree  or  else  it  is  placed  in  a  hole  in  such  a  way 
that  it  is  carried  beyond  or  to  one  side  of  the  tap  root.  For 
the  correct  location  of  a  charge  expected  to  affect  the  tap  root 
directly  see  Fig.  66. 

Fig.  67  shows  a  charge  improperly  placed  at  one  side  of  the 
center  of  a  tree  having  no  large  tap  root.     The  charge  should 


^^ijJj'iNiti^iJ^ 


w^,y  ^^ 


u.'A.,lL/Jl4LW\. 


J 


Fig.  66. — Correct  location  of  charge  in  tap  root. 


ISie  of  Weasurement 


Fig.  67. — Incorrect  location  of  charge  in  stump 
having  no  tap  root. 


be  placed  as  shown  in  Fig.  68.  Unless  it  is  placed  well  down 
under  the  roots  a  "  blow  out  "  at  one  side  of  the  tree  will  be 
the  result.  A  charge  placed  too  near  the  surface  of  the  ground 
is  shown  in  Fig.  69.  A  similarly  placed  charge  under  a  stump 
only  serves  to  split  it  without  removing  the  roots  from  the 
ground.     (See  Fig.  70.) 

If  a  concentrated  charge  is  desired  it  may  be  provided  for 
as  sho'^Ti  in  Fig.  71,  where  the  lower  end  of  the  bore-hole  has 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


83 


fe— rs^ 


Xuie  of  Aleasurement 


\         l|-Fuse 


:i 


>>^l>,rv>    r^e7 


Fig.  68. — Correct  location  of  charge  in  stump  having  no  tap  root. 


Fig.  69.— Charge  placed  too  near  surface. 


Fig.  70. — Bore-hole  too  shallow.    Stump  spht,  but 
roots  not  removed. 


84 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


been  enlarged  or  "  chambered  "  by  exploding  a  quarter-cartridge 
in  it.  Such  a  chamber  should  be  allowed  to  cool  an  hour  before 
the  final  charge  is  placed  in  it,  unless  fired  in  wet  ground. 


Fig.  71. — "Chambered"  or  "sprung"  bore-hole. 


Mistakes  to  be  Avoided. — Allowing  priming  to  be  done  in  or 
near  a  magazine. 

Allowing  stock  access  to  explosives. 

Crimping  a  cap  with  the  teeth. 

Cutting  a  frozen  dynamite  cartridge. 

Cutting  fuse  too  short  in  an  effort  to  economize. 

Disturbing  the  fulminate  charge  in  a  cap. 

Drilling  or  charging  a  new  hole  less  than  2  feet  from  a  "  missed  " 
one. 

Exploding  a  charge  before  all  the  workmen  have  retired  to  a 
safe  distance  or  before  other  explosives  have  been  protected 
from  falling  debris. 

Forcing  a  primer  into  a  bore-hole. 

Handling  dynamite  with  bare  hands  unless  immune  to  "  dyna- 
mite headache."     Use  gloves. 

Immediately  reloading  a  "  chambered  "  bore-hole. 

Investigating  a  misfire  in  less  than  an  hour  after  it  should 
have  exploded. 

Keeping  dynamite  in  a  blacksmith  shop  or  near  a  forge. 

Leaving  explosives  in  wet,  damp,  cold,  unlocked  places. 

"  Picking  out  "  a  misfire  unless  the  bore-hole  is  shallow  enough 
to  allow  the  charge  to  be  seen  as  soon  as  it  is  reached. 

Removing  caps  from  the  box  with  a  nail  or  wire. 

Smoking  while  preparing  or  otherwise  handling  explosives. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  85 

Storing  explosives  in  or  near  a  residence. 
Storing  fuse  in  a  hot,  dry  place. 
Tamping  with  an  iron  bar. 

Thawing  dynamite  except  in  a  receptacle  especially  designed 
for  that  purpose. 

Transporting  or  storing  caps  with  djTiamite. 

Using  frozen  or  chilled  dynamite.     Most  of  it  freezes  at  50°  F. 

BUILDINGS 

Ordinarily,  the  field  man  is  not  required  to  construct  build- 
ings of  more  elaborate  or  complicated  design  than  that  involved 
in  cabins,  barns,  sheds,  and  other  buildings  of  a  similar  character. 
Otherwise  expert  carpenter  work  is  secured  and  the  field  man, 
if  he  is  engaged  in  the  work  at  all,  usually  acts  as  assistant 
to  the  carpenter  in  charge.  Consequently,  only  rudimentary 
rules  of  construction  will  be  considered  here. 

Foundations. — Properly  constructed  foundations  constitute  the 
most  important  factor  in  a  substantially  built  house.  Stones  or 
blocks  comprising  foundations  should  not  be  set  merely  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  but  should  be  firmly  bedded  on  soHd  rock  or 
earth,  and  dirt  or  fine  stone  then  tamped  closely  about  them. 
This  not  only  provides  a  much  fii'mer  base  on  which  to  build,  but 
also  prevents  water  from  undermining  the  blocks  or  piers.  All 
points  of  a  foundation  must  be  level  with  each  other  and  secured 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  process  of  erection  will  not  displace 
them.  Construction  proper  should  not  begin  until  the  foun- 
dations have  been  allowed  to  settle  securely,  after  which,  if 
necessary,  the  upper  surfaces  may  be  finally  leveled.  Block 
foundations,  or  foundations  made  of  lengths  of  tree-trunks, 
can  not  be  recommended  for  use  under  any  building,  whatever 
its  size  or  use,  and  especially  if  it  is  to  be  of  a  permanent  nature. 
The  best  materials  for  foundations  are  concrete,  stone,  and 
pressed  brick. 

Materials. — The  materials  commonly  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  Forest  Service  buildings  are  lumber  and  logs,  although 
in  localities  remote  from  such  supplies  stone  or  concrete  may  be 
and  frequently  is  used.  Corrugated  iron  roofing  may  also  be 
used  for  walls  as  well  as  for  roofing.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  average  field  man  will  seldom  find  it  necessary  to  use 
other  material  than  lumber  and  logs. 


8G    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Classifications. — Buildings  made  of  the  materials  mentioned 
above  may  be  classed  as  frame,  half -frame,  box,  and  log.  The 
first  have  full  frames  of  studding  and  joists,  are  usually  built  for 
permanency,  and  are  so  constructed  as  to  support  great  weight 
in  the  upper  portions. 

HaK-frames  are  fitted  with  fewer  studding  and  joists,  may  or 
may  not  be  permanent  structures,  and  will  not  support  as  great 
weight  above  as  full  frames. 

Box  frames  have  a  few  or  no  studding,  are  ribbed,  are  more 
or  less  temporary  in  nature,  and  are  seldom  more  than  one 
story  high. 

Log  frames  have  neither  studding  nor  ribs,  may  or  may  not 
be  built  for  permanency,  and  will  support  heavy  upper  parts 
in  proportion  to  the  crushing  resistance  of  the  wall  logs. 

Full  Frames. — Studding  in  these  are  usually  spaced  at  from 
18  to  24  inches.     Ribs  may  be  fitted  into  the  studding  if  the 
walls  are  to  be  boxed,   but  braces  may  take  the 
place  of  ribs  if  regular  siding  is  to  be  used.     Sills 
may    be    of    solid    timbers    or  they    may  be    con- 
structed by  spiking  two  timbers  together  in  a  V- 
shape  or  "  hog    trough "    as    showTi    in    Fig.    72. 
Many    carpenters  insist  that  the  vertical  timber  of 
a  hog- trough   sill  should  project 
do^Tiward    outside   of   the    hori- 
zontal timber  in  order  to  prevent 
water    from    entering    the    joint, 
Fig.  72. — "Hog-trough"  sill.      but  since  this  joint  is  protected, 

or  at  least  should  be  protected, 
by  the  boxing  or  siding  this  point  of  construction  is  of  minor 
importance. 

Floor  joists  or  "  sleepers  "  are  spiked  into  hog- trough  sills 
as  shown  at  the  left  in  Fig.  73.  They  are  secured  to  sohd  sills 
as  shown  at  the  right  in  the  same  figure.  Studding  are  fastened 
to  hog-trough  sills  as  shown  in  Fig.  74,  this  method  being 
used  when  the  walls  are  to  be  boxed.  If  the  walls  are  to  be 
sided  then  the  studding  are  notched  and  set  as  shown  at  the 
right  of  the  same  figure.  Corner  studding  for  siding  are  set 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  end  sleeper,  one  side  and  one  edge 
being  flush  with  the  outer  side  of  the  sleeper  and  sill,  respec- 
tively, as  shown  in  Fig.  75.  In  the  same  figure  is  also  shown 
the  method  used  in  setting  corner  studding  when  the  walls  are 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


87 


to  be  ribbed  and  boxed.  If  ribs  are  to  be  set  into  the  studding 
rather  than  nailed  against  them,  then  all  studding  for  box  walls 
are  set  the  same  as  for  siding.  Methods  of  attaching  ribs  to 
studding  for  boxing  or  for  siding  are  shown  in  Fig.  76, 

To  Estimate  Lumber  for  Building. — There  are  so  many  styles 


Sleeper 


N^  Sill 


Fig.  73. — Attachment  of  sleepers. 


\ 


Studding 


Sill 


Studding 


Sill 


Fig.  74. — Attachment  of  studding. 


studding 


Sleeper 


\l  Sill 


Sleeper 


N         Sill 


Fig.  75. — Attachment  of  corner  studding. 


and  varieties  of  buildings  that  a  comprehensive  treatise  cover- 
ing estimates  on  all  would  be  almost  impossible,  but  a  general 
idea  of  estimates  for  the  simplest  forms  of  construction  may  be 
obtained  from  the  following  plan.     It  is  assumed  that  the  field 


88 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


man  is  required  to  estimate  the  material  required  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  cabin  14  by  16  feet  in  size,  with  8-foot  walls, 
rough  floor  and  ceiling,  12-inch  eaves  and  overhangs,  no  cornice, 
one  rough  door,  and  three  shutter  windows.  The  estimate 
follows: 


SiUs,  Hog-Trough, 
"     Plain 


Sleepers,  2-foot  spaces . 
Ribs 


Plates 

Joists,  2-foot  spaces 

Rafters,  2-foot  spaces 

Sheeting,  26-inch  shakes  to  be 
laid  21  inches  to  the  weather, 
board  fashion,  twelve  courses 

Sheeting,  shingles  to  be  laid  4 
inches  to  the  weather, 
thirty-four  courses 

Shakes 

Shingles 

Saddle  board,  shake  roof 

shingle  roof.  .  .  . 

Floor 

WaUs 

CeiUng 

Gables 

NaUs 


4  pieces  2x6x16 64  feet 

2x  6x  14 28  " 

2x  6x  16 32  " 

2x  6x  14 98  " 

2x4x  14 20  " 

2x4x  16 22  " 

2x4x  16 22  " 

2x4x  14 85  " 

2x4x  12 144  " 


1  x  4  x  18 


1  X  4  X  18 


84 


204 


34 
1300 
4000 

none  required 

2  pieces  1  x    6  x  18 18 

14         "      1x12x16 224 

30        "      1x12x16 480 

14  "      1x12x16 224 

7        "      Ix  12x  16 112 

6  pounds  20-d 
20        "  8-d 

9        "  6-d  for  shakes 

7  "  3-d  for  shingles,  1  nail 

15  "  3-d  for  shingles,  2  nails 


Add  one  pound  of  20s  if  hog- trough  sills  are  used. 

Thirty-five  pounds  of  8s  will  be  required  if  three  nails  are 
used  at  each  point  of  contact  on  the  boxing,  floor,  and  ceiHng, 
and  also  used  in  naiUng  on  shakes. 

Hinges,  4  pairs,  6-inch  strap,  for  door  and  shutter  windows. 

Plates,  which  are  those  timbers  at  the  top  of  a  wall  and  upon 
which  the  rafters  rest,  are  spiked  to  the  upper  ends  of  the  stud- 
ding as  showTi  in  Fig.  77.  Eave  ribs  are  attached  when  boxing 
is  to  be  used.  Studding  braces,  generally  used  in  walls  to  be 
sided,  are  fitted  into  the  studding  in  three  different  ways  as 
shown  in  Fig.  78.  Upper  joists,  or  "  stringers,"  are  laid  on 
the  plates  as  in  Fig.  79.     Rafters  are  set  on  the  plates,  usually 


For 
Boxing 


\ 


Studding 


Studding 


For 

Siding 


Fig.  76. — Attachment  of  ribs 
to  studding. 


For  Boxing  For  Siding 


Fig.  77. — Attachment 
of  plates. 


r^      r^        F^ 


^^ 


Fig.  78. — Studding  braces. 


Stringer 


Studding 


Fig.  79. — Attachment  of 
stringer  to  plate. 


Fig.  80. 


90 


HANDBOOK    FOR   RANGERS   AISTD    WOODSMEN 


against  the  joists,  and  spiked  to  both.  If  they  are  cut  too 
long  they  will  not  meet  at  the  extreme  upper  points  but  will 
gap  as  shown  in  Fig.  80.  If  cut  too  short  the  gap  will  appear  at 
the  under  side.  They  may  be  tied  with  ''  wind  "  beams  or  "wind 
collars"  or  "collar  beams"  as  shown  in  Fig.  81.  Fig.  82  shows 
a  self-supporting  roof.     This  method  of  construction  prevents 


Fig.  81 


Fig.  82. — Self-supporting  roof. 


the  rafters  from  sagging  and  makes  a  very  strong  roof.  It  is 
frequently  used  in  roofs  having  long  rafters  and  is  very  effective 
where  a  large  anxount  of  snow  may  remain  on  a  roof  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  It  is  not  a  satisfactory  form  of  roof  for  barns 
the  upper  parts  of  which  are  to  be  filled  with  hay  or  other  feed. 
A  seK-supporting  shed  roof  may  be  constructed  as  shown  in 
Fig.  83. 

This  is  known  as  a  "  truss  "  roof.  Its  chief  disadvantage  is 
the  extra  cost  of  material  and  labor  required  in  its  construc- 
tion. Furthermore,  the  presence  of  the  lower  truss  beam  causes 
the  loss  of  more  or  less  space  beneath  the  roof. 

Half-frames. — This  method  of  construction  is  similar  to  that 
used  in  erecting  frame  buildings,  the  only  difference  being  in 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


91 


the  number  of  studding  and  other  frame  timbers  used.     Such 
frames  are  used  chiefly  where  the  walls  are  to  be  boxed. 

Box  Frames. — These  have  either  no  studding  at  all,  or  at  the 
most  only  a  few.     Like  the  half-frames  they  are  used  where 


Fig.  83. — Truss  roof. 


Fig,  84. — "Hog-trough"  comer. 


Httle  or  no  pressure  will  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  plates.  Ribs 
are  used  occasionally,  but  these  are  supported  by  and  serve  to 
increase  the  rigidity  of  the  boxing.  The  four  hog-trough  corners 
are  first  set  up  as  shown  in  Fig.  84  and  boxing  is  then  nailed 
to  the  sills  and  plates.     Ribs  may  be  put  in  as  soon  as  the 


92    HANDBOOK  FOE  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

corners  are  erected  or  they  may  be  supplied  after  all  the  boxing 
has  been  attached. 

Log  Frames. — Logs  to  be  used  in  walls  should  be  notched, 
preferably  as  showTi  in  Fig.  85.  These  notches  are  made  after 
the  sides  of  the  logs  have  been  hewn  flat  from  the  ends  back 
to  a  distance  of  from  12  to  24  inches.  Such  hewing  brings  the 
logs  to  the  required  thickness  for  the  wall 
and  leaves  the  corners  of  the  building  in 
a  finished  condition  if  the  entire  sides  of 
the  logs  are  to  be  hewn  flat  later. 
Ground  logs  are  not  fltted  with  notch 
No.  1,  but  are  hewn  flat  on  the  under  side 
and  fitted  with  notch  No.  2.  Notch  No. 
1  in  the  next  log  above  fits  down  over 
notch  No.  2  of  the  ground  log.  This  proc- 
ess of  fitting  the  logs  together  is  followed 
Fig.  85. — Notches  for  on  up  the  wall  to  the  top  log.  This  log, 
waU  logs.  which    is    known    as    the    ''  plate "    log, 

has  notch  No.  1,  but  is  not  fitted  with 
notch  No.  2.  Its  entire  upper  surface  is  hewn  flat  and  sup- 
ports the  rafters.  Many  log  buildings  have  the  top  two  or 
three  logs  pinned  through  the  corners  to  each  other,  but  this 
is  seldom  necessary  if  the  logs  are  notched  as  shown  in  the 
illustration. 

LAYING  THE  ROOF 

Cornice. — This  is  very  commonly  though  erroneously  referred 
to  as  the  "  cornish  "  or  "carnish."  In  the  very  roughest  forms 
of  construction  no  cornice  is  attached,  the  lookouts  and  sheet- 
ing ends  being  left  uncovered  and  the  openings  between,  on  the 
plates  and  rafters,  filled  with  short  lengths  of  board  or  left 
open  as  the  builder  prefers.  A  very  simple  and  effective  form  of 
cornice  and  one  that  completely  covers  aU  exposed  lookouts  and 
sheeting  ends  is  known  as  the  "  box  "  cornice.  It  consists  of 
the  "  facia,"  which  is  nailed  against  the  ends  of  the  lookouts 
and  sheeting  ends,  the  "  plencia,"  nailed  against  the  lower 
edges  of  the  lookouts,  and  the  "  frieze,"  nailed  against  the  walls 
and  close  up  under  the  inner  edge  of  the  plencia.  Ordinarily,  the 
plencia  is  attached  first,  the  frieze  next,  and  the  facia  last,  al- 
though many  carpenters  prefer  to  follow  other  methods  of  con- 
struction.    The  outer  or  lower  edge  of  the  plencia  should  come 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  93 

out  flush  with  the  ends  of  the  lookouts  and  the  facia  should  be 
cut  wide  enough  to  reach  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  sheeting 
to  the  lower  edge  of  the  plencia.  A  square  "  box  "  is  recom- 
mended for  all  ordinary  buildings,  its  chief  advantage  being  the 
fact  that  it  requires  less  skill  in  construction  than  a  cornice  hav- 
ing a  perpendicular  facia  or  a  facia  set  at  other  than  right  angles 
to  the  plencia. 

Sheeting. — The  work  of  laying  sheeting  begins  at  the  outer  face 
of  the  cornice  where  the  first  sheeting  board  is  nailed  out  flush  with 
the  edge  of  the  facia.  As  he  lays  succeeding  courses  of  sheeting 
the  carpenter  uses  the  lower  courses  as  a  means  of  support  both 
for  liimseK  and  for  any  extra  tools  or  material  that  he  may  need 
close  at  hand. 

Each  course  should  be  nailed  to  every  rafter  it  crosses  and 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  joints  do  not  all  fall  on  the  same 
rafter.  Unless  joints  are  distributed  over  the  entire  set  of 
rafters  a  weak  roof  will  be  the  result.  The  last  course,  at  the 
apex  or  the  *'comb"  of  the  roof,  should  be  nailed  securely  to 
the  corresponding  course  on  the  opposite  side.  Sheeting  for 
shingles  is  usually  of  1  by  4  lumber  laid  with  4-inch  spaces. 
Sheeting  for  shakes  that  are  to  be  laid  "  shake  fashion  "  must 
be  spaced  wide  enough  to  provide  firm  support  for  each  end 
of  the  shakes.  If  shakes  are  to  be  laid  shingle  fashion,  then  of 
course  sheeting  is  spaced  the  same  as  for  shingles. 

Shingling. — Shinghng  also  begins  at  the  lower  edge  of  the 
roof.  The  old  practice  of  cutting  shingles  for  the  first  course 
in  half  in  order  to  avoid  a  "  humped  "  roof  is  seldom  followed 
by  modern  carpenters.  This  course  is  simply  doubled  and  full- 
length  shingles  are  used.  In  order  to  keep  the  lower  ends  of 
the  first  course  of  shingles  even,  a  shingle  is  nailed  at  either  end 
of  the  roof,  a  small  nail  is  driven  up  into  the  end  of  each,  and 
a  chalk  fine  is  then  stretched  from  one  to  the  other.  A  third 
shingle  should  be  used  at  the  center  of  a  long  roof.  When  the 
first  course  has  been  laid  the  end  shingles  are  marked  at  a  point 
where  the  lower  ends  of  the  next  course  wiU  reach,  the  fine  is 
weU  chalked,  stretched  tightly  across  the  lower  course  from  one 
end  mark  to  the  other,  raised,  and  then  allowed  to  snap  do\NTi 
against  the  shingles,  thus  leaving  a  distinct  fine  of  chalk  against 
which  to  set  the  nex-t  course  of  shingles.  These  should  always 
cover  the  joints  between  shingles  in  the  course  below  and  should 
be  nailed  to  the  sheeting  at  a  point  just  above  where  the  butts 


94    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

in  the  next  course  above  will  fall.  By  nailing  them  in  this 
manner  all  nail-heads  are  hidden  and  a  much  neater  looking 
and  more  durable  roof  is  the  result.  The  last,  or  top,  course 
of  shingles  on  the  side  first  covered  should  be  sawed  ofT  flush 
with  the  top  sheeting  board  on  the  opposite  side,  while  those 
on  the  opposite  side  should  be  sawed  off  flush  with  the  upper 
surfaces  of  the  top  course  on  the  first  side. 

The  nails  used  in  fastening  the  shingles  to  the  sheeting 
should  not  be  driven  so  deeply  that  the  heads  will  spht  the 
shingles.^ 

Shingles  Required. — The  number  of  shingles  required  to  cover 
a  roof  of  given  size  may  be  obtained  by  either  of  two  methods, 
viz.:  (1)  by  ascertaining  the  number  of  squares  contained  in  the 
surface  of  the  roof,  including  eaves  and  "  overhangs,"  and  mul- 
tiplying this  by  the  number  of  shingles  required  to  cover  one 
square;  (2)  by  ascertaining  the  number  of  square  feet  in  the 
roof  and  multiplying  this  by  the  number  of  shingles  required 
for  one  square  foot.  For  example:  Given  a  24-foot  roof  (plate 
measure)  with  12-foot  rafters,  12-inch  eaves  or  lookouts,  and 
12-inch  overhangs,  to  find  the  number  of  shingles  required. 
The  two  overhangs  added  to  the  plate  measure  make  a  total 
roof  length  of  26  feet,  while  the  12-inch  eave  makes  the  roof, 
or  this  particular  haK  of  it,  13  feet  wide.  This  makes  an  area 
of  338  square  feet,  or  3.38  squares.  The  entire  roof  will  of 
course  contain  twice  this  number  of  square  feet.  Assuming 
that  the  shingles  average  4  inches  in  width  and  that  they  are 
to  be  laid  4  inches  to  the  weather,  it  follows  that  nine  shingles 
are  required  to  cover  a  square  foot  or  that  nine  hundred  are 
required  for  a  square.  However,  carpenters  usually  estimate 
that  a  roof  of  this  sort  requires  one  thousand  shingles  per  square, 
the  extra  one  hundred  shingles  being  used  in  the  double  course 
at  the  eave  or  being  discarded  as  damaged  or  cuU.  Very  wide 
shingles  do  not  make  a  satisfactory  roof  because  of  their  ten- 
dency to  swell  or  shrink  and  to  buckle  or  spht. 

Number  of  Nails  for  a  Shingle  Roof. — In  all  ordinary  shin- 
gUng  not  more  than  one  nail  per  shingle  is  necessary,  although 
many  carpenters  insist  that  aU  shingles,  and  especially  the  very 
wide  ones,  should  be  nailed  near  both  edges.     However,  in  single 


^A  common   expression  among  shinglers:  "When  you  lay  shingles 
don't  strike  the  nails  a  last  hck." 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  95 

nailing,  the  nail  may  be  driven,  for  instance,  near  the  left  edge 
of  the  shingle  and  far  enough  above  the  butt  to  allow  the  butt 
of  the  shingle  in  the  next  course  above  to  cover  the  nail-head. 
The  other  edge  of  the  shingle  will  be  made  secure  when  the  next 
succeeding  course  is  laid,  and  the  shingle  will  also  be  further 
secured  by  nails  which  pass  through  other  shingles  above.  Two 
nails  per  shingle  wiU  of  course  make  a  much  more  substantial 
and  weatherproof  roof.  The  nails  most  widely  used  for  sawed 
shingles  are  knowni  as  "■  No.  3  Common,"  and  are  approximately 
13<4  inches  long. 

Shakes. — This  term,  typically  Southern,  appHes  to  clap 
boards  spht  or  hewn  from  timbers.  Ordinarily  shakes  are 
made  about  4  inches  wide  and  from  18  to  36  inches  long,  fre- 
quently longer  if  to  be  used  in  special  construction,  such  as 
for  walls  or  for  harrow  roofs  where  one  course  will  cover  the 
rafters.  They  may  be  laid  the  same  as  shingles,  but  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  are  laid  in  "  board  fashion,"  i.  e.,  laid  in  double  courses 
in  such  a  way  as  to  break  joints  and  at  the  same  time  overlap 
the  next  lower  course  by  from  2  to  4  inches.  When  laid  in  this 
manner  the  butts  are  held  even  by  means  of  a  straight  edge  tacked 
to  the  course  below.  As  each  course  is  finished  the  straight 
edge  is  removed  and  then  tacked  to  the  last  course  laid.  The 
method  of  naihng  shakes  in  board  fashion  differs  from  that 
followed  in  laying  them  shingle  fashion.  In  the  first  course  a  pair 
of  shakes,  or  "  boards,"  is  laid  side  by  side  on  the  sheeting  and 
a  third  board  is  laid  on  top  of  and  parallel  with  these  in  such 
a  way  that  the  joint  between  the  lower  boards  falls  immediately 
beneath  it.  A  nail  is  then  driven  through  a  lower  corner  of 
the  top  board,  through  the  board  beneath  it  and  into  the  sheet- 
ing. The  nail  driven  tlirough  the  opposite  corner  secures  the 
other  board  of  the  pair.  The  next  board  is  laid  beside  one  of 
the  pair  and  a  second  board  is  placed  over  the  joint  and  be- 
side the  top  board  first  laid,  nailing  to  be  done  after  the  manner 
just  described.  The  upper  ends  are  left  unnailed  for  the  time 
being,  but  are  finally  fastened  to  the  sheeting  when  the  next 
course  above  is  laid.  By  naihng  them  in  this  manner,  where 
nails  passing  through  the  course  above  also  pass  through  the 
upper  ends  of  the  course  below,  considerable  time  is  saved  and 
the  number  of  nails  required  is  much  less  than  when  each  board 
is  nailed  separately.  In  view  of  the  extra  thickness  of  most 
boards,  however,  it  is  often  found  necessary  to  use  much  larger 


96    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

nails  than  are  required  for  sawed  or  cut  shingles  and  in  very 
thick  or  rough  boards  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  use  8ds. 
Occasionally,  if  twisted  or  warped  boards  are  being  laid,  it  may 
also  be  found  necessary  to  use  extra  nails  at  the  other 
corners. 

Shakes  Required. — ^Estimates  for  shake  roofs,  shakes  to  be 
laid  "  shingle  fashion,"  are  the  same  as  for  shingle  roofs.  If  the 
shakes  are  to  be  laid  "  board  fashion,"  then  a  different  method 
of  estimating  must  be  followed.  Assuming  that  the  shakes  are 
32  inches  long  and  that  they  are  to  be  laid  28  inches  to  the 
weather,  the  13-foot  rafters  will  carry  about  four  and  one-half 
courses,  or,  as  is  usually  estimated,  five  whole  courses.  If  the 
shakes  average  4  inches  in  width,  then  each  course  in  a  26-foot 
roof  will  contain  seventy-eight  shakes,  but  since  the  shakes  are  to 
be  laid  "  board  fashion  "  each  course  must  be  doubled.  This 
requires  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  shakes  for  each  of  the  ten 
courses  necessary  to  cover  the  entire  roof. 

Number  of  Nails  for  a  Shake  Roof. — If  shakes  are  to  be  laid 
shingle  fashion  the  same  number  of  hails  must  be  used  as  for 
a  shingle  roof.  If  they  are  to  be  laid  board  fashion  two  nails 
will  be  required  for  each  shake  in  the  top  tier  of  each  course, 
and  in  addition  thereto  an  extra  row  of  nails  wiU  be  required 
at  the  comb.  The  number  of  nails  required  for  such  a  roof 
will  therefore  be  equal  to  the  number  of  shakes  used,  plus  the 
extra  number  required  at  the  comb.  Ordinarily  6-penny  com- 
mons can  be  used,  although  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  use 
8-penny  commons  in  extra  thick  or  rough  shakes. 

Saddle  Boards. — This  completes  the  roof,  and  consists  of  two 
boards  nailed  together  hog-trough  fashion  and  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  roof  along  the  comb.  It  provides  an  in- 
verted V-shaped  covering  at  the  comb,  and  not  only  serves  to 
hold  the  last  course  of  shingles  more  securely,  but  also  prevents 
the  entrance  of  rain  and  snow.  It  should  be  nailed  securely 
through  the  shingles  and  into  the  sheeting. 

A  saddle  board  is  seldom  used  on  a  shake  roof.  As  a  means 
of  protection  against  snow  and  rain  the  last  course  of  boards 
laid  on  the  side  first  covered  is  sawed  off  flush  with  the  oppo- 
site sheeting  board,  while  the  last  course  on  the  opposite  side 
is  not  sawed  off  but  is  allowed  to  project  upward  over  the  sawed- 
off  ends  of  the  corresponding  course  on  the  first  side.  This  is 
a  very  common  form  of  roof  throughout  the  South. 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  97 


LAYING  THE   FLOOR 

Ordinarily  the  roof  is  first  completed  in  order  to  provide  shelter 
for  workmen  during  the  completion  of  a  building  in  bad  weather, 
and  after  this  comes  the  laying  of  the  floor,  which  will  present 
an  even  and  substantial  surface  upon  which  to  work  while  the 
door  and  window  casings  and  other  parts  are  being  made  and 
fitted. 

Unmatched  Flooring. — This  is  plain,  dressed  or  undressed 
planks,  but  if  properly  laid  makes  a  tight  and  comparatively 
even  floor.  In  nailing  it  to  the  sleepers  the  nails  must  be  driven 
directly  through  it  and  into  the  sleepers,  and  all  nail-heads  should 
be  well  sunk  beneath  the  surface  of  the  planks  if  a  smooth  floor 
is  desired.  Crooked  planks  should  be  drawn  close  up  against 
adjoining  planks  by  beginning  at  one  end  and  nailing  to  suc- 
cessive sleepers  as  the  planks  are  forced  over.  If  planks  are 
so  crooked  or  warped  that  they  cannot  be  forced  sidewise,  then 
they  may  be  ripped  or  planed  straight,  or,  if  crooks  make  even 
this  procedure  impractical,  they  may  be  sawed  half-way  through, 
and  thus  weakened  until  they  can  be  bent.  Care  must  be  taken 
in  such  sawing,  however,  to  see  that  the  point  of  sawing  will 
fall  on  a  sleeper.  Unseasoned  flooring  should  not  be  used 
unless  battens  are  placed  beneath  the  joints.  At  least  two 
nails  should  be  used  in  each  sleeper. 

Matched  Flooring. — Planks  in  matched  flooring  are  fitted 
with  a  tongue  at  one  edge  and  with  a  groove  at  the  other,  thus 
providing  for  a  closed  joint  between  them.  The  nails  used  in 
fastening  do-^Ti  the  floor  should  be  of  a  small-headed  variety, 
such  as  casing  nails,  and  should  be  driven  diagonally  through  the 
planks  immediately  at  the  rear  of  the  tongue,  care  being  taken 
not  to  bruise  or  batter  the  shoulder  above  the  tongue.  Nailed 
in  this  manner  the  groove  of  one  plank  covers  the  nail-head  in 
the  one  beside  it,  and  no  nail-heads  protrude  above  the  surface 
of  the  finished  floor.  No  nail  is  required  on  the  side  next  to 
the  groove,  the  tongue  of  the  adjoining  plank  being  sufficiently 
strong  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  nail. 

WALLS 

The  rules  suggested  for  laying  floors  apply  equally  weH  to 
walls,  except  that  when  boxing  is  used  it  is  customarily  set  ver- 
tically rather  than  horizontally,  like  siding,  and  battens  are  nailed 


98 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


to  the  outside.^  Matched  or  "  drop  "  siding,  to  be  attached 
horizontally  to  studding  or  boxing,  bears  a  tongue  at  either 
edge,  but  these  are  diagonally  opposite  each  other,  thus  allowing 
the  lower  of  one  plank  to  fall  outside  the  upper  of  the  one  below. 
Such  a  manner  of  construction  presents  a  shingle  effect  which 
prevents  the  entrance  of  rain  or  snow. 

Plain  siding,  or  ''  shiplap,"  made  thicker  at  one  edge  than  at 
the  other,  is  laid  shingle  fashion  against  the  studding  or  boxing 

with  the  thin  edge  up.  Most 
carpenters  allow  the  lower  edge 
to  cover  the  upper  edge  of  the 
plank  below  with  a  lap  of  about 
}/2  inch.     The  work  of  attach- 

)ing  such  siding  must  of  course 
Siding  begin  at  the  bottom  of  the  wall. 

Water  Board. — This  may  also 
be  kno^Ti  as  a   "  water  shed." 
It  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a 
^  wall  which  is  to  be  sided  and 

is  nailed  directly  against  the  sill. 
It  is  designed  primarily  as  a 
protection  to  the  sill,  but  also 
tends  to  give  a  building  a  much 
neater  and  more  fully  completed 
^^'^-  ^^-  appearance    if    a    box    cornice 

is  used  and  completed  with  a 
frieze.  Water  boards  are  seldom  used  on  walls  to  be  boxed. 
Fig.  86  shows  an  end  view  of  such  a  board. 

Door  and  Window  Casings  and  Other  Inside  Work. — The 
proper*  construction  and  fitting  of  door  and  window  casings  and 
inside  finishing  require  skill  and  tools  that  the  average  layman 
does  not  possess.  Therefore,  in  view  of  these  facts,  together 
with  the  improbabihty  of  a  field  man  being  required  to  do  such 
work,  no  suggestions  on  the  subject  will  be  offered  here.  The 
most  practical  procedure  that  can  be  followed  is  to  secure  the 
services     of     a     professional     carpenter     who      possesses     the 


Water  board 


1  Boxing  is  set  horizontally  in  most  tent  houses.  The  reason  for  this 
form  of  construction  Ues  in  the  fact  that  set  in  this  manner  a  minimum 
of  labor  and  waste  of  material  is  secured.  INIoreover,  a  tent  house  is 
usually  only  temporary  in  nature  and  is  seldom  designed  as  a  complete 
protection  against  extreme  weather. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  99 

necessary  knowledge  of  and  proper    tools    for    finishing    such 
work. 

CONCRETE    WORK 

Concrete. — This  form  of  artificial  stone  is  continually  meeting 
with  greater  favor  among  builders,  and  although  the  average 
field  man  seldom  is  required  to  use  such  material  he  may  never- 
theless find  occasional  need  for  a  knowledge  of  its  general  nature. 
The  chief  reasons  why  concrete  is  in  such  universal  demand  are 
its  superior  strength  as  compared  w4th  masonry  involving  the 
use  of  Ume  mortar,  the  cheapness,  ease,  and  simplicity  with  which 
it  may  be  made,  the  complete  success  wliich  attends  its  use  in 
nearly  all  forms  of  construction,  and  the  permanency  in  con- 
struction which  it  affords. 

Cement. — This  bears  the  same  relation  to  concrete  that  ordi- 
nary Ume  mortar  bears  to  other  forms  of  masonry,  but  differs 
from  lime  in  its  capacity  for  hardening,  or  "  setting,"  under 
water,  while  Ume  hardens  only  when  exposed  to  air.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  this  particular  characteristic  of  cement,  which  gives 
it  the  name  of  "  hydrauhc  "  cement,  renders  it  preferable  to 
hme  for  general  use. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  cements  manufactured,  but 
Portland  and  natural  cements  are  most  widely  used  and  are 
the  only  ones  that  can  be  considered  in  detail  here.  Rosendale, 
formerly  applj^ing  only  to  the  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  natural 
cements,  is  a  name  now  given  to  practically  all  natural  cements 
of  this  country.  Another  variet}^,  kno\sTi  as  ''  Puzzolan,"  is 
made  by  grinding  slaked  Hme  and  slag  together.  Silica  cement 
consists  of  a  ground  niLxture  of  cement  and  quartz  sand. 

Natural  Cement. — This  is  produced  by  burning  certain  clay- 
bearing  Hmestone,  or  calcareous  clay,  after  it  has  been  quarried 
and  broken  in  fragments  of  a  size  most  convenient  to  handle, 
the  quarrying,  breaking,  and  burning  being  done  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  employed  in  preparing  hme.  Later  the  burned 
stone  is  crushed  or  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  Natural  cement 
sets  quicker  than  Portland  cement,  but  is  considerably  inferior 
in  strength. 

Portland  Cement. — The  production  of  Portland  cement  con- 
ssts  in  grinding  the  different  materials  together  in  desired  pro- 
portions, after  which  they  are  burned,  at  a  temperature  higher 
t'liin  that  allowed  in  burning  natural  cements,   and  are  then 


100 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


ground  again  until  a  fine  powder  is  produced.  By  reason  of  the 
fact  that  this  method  of  preparation  permits  absolute  control 
of  quantity  and  quaUty  of  ingredients  Portland  cement  is  far 
superior  to  natural  cements,  and  is  therefore  more  widely  used 
than  the  latter. 

Proportions. — Concrete  consists  of  three  principal  materials 
mixed  together  in  water,  viz.,  cement,  sand,  and  aggregate. 
These  are  mixed  together  in  proportions  previously  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  use  to  which  the  concrete  is  to  be  put,  the 
efficiency  of  the  concrete  depending  chiefly  upon  the  amount 
of  each  material  used.  The  following  table  of  mixtures  is  in 
sufficient  detail  to  cover  any  concrete  mixing  the  field  man  will 
be  required  to  do: 


Proportions  to 
1  Part  Cement 

Sand 

Aggregate 

2 
3 

4 
5 

6 

For  great  strength ;  to  resist  water. 

For  moderate  strength,  such  as  in  cellars,  walls 

of  small  buildings,  steps,  curbs,  etc. 
For  ordinary  work  where  a  minimum  of  strength 

is  required,  such  as  in  walks,  small  retaining 

walls,  floors,  etc. 

Sand. — The  three  principal  varieties  of  sand  are  known  as 
"  Pit,"  "  River,"  and  ''  Sea  "  sand,  these  names  being  derived, 
of  course,  from  the  location  from  which  the  respective  varieties 
are  obtained. 

Better  results  may  be  obtained  in  concrete  work  if  coarse- 
and  fine-grained  sands  are  mixed  together.  Such  a  mixture 
reduces  the  total  void,  and  therefore  requires  less  cement  for 
filhng.  Any  sand  used  must  be  screened,  if  leaves,  twigs,  dirt, 
or  other  foreign  materials  are  present.  Voids  in  sand  vary  from 
25%  to  40%,  according  to  the  degree  of  coarseness  or  fineness. 

Fit  Sand. — This  usually  has  sharp  angular  grains  and  will  be 
found  most  satisfactory  for  general  use.  The  chief  disadvan- 
tage often  encountered  in  securing  it  is  the  presence  of  clay 
pockets,  occasionally  so  extensive  as  to  make  it  necessary  either 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  101 

to  wash  the  sand  or  else  mix  the  clay  into  it.  Clay  has  no  per- 
ceptible detrimental  effect  on  rich  mortar,  and  is  even  desirable 
in  lean  mortar  when  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  sand. 

River  Sand. — In  nearly  all  locahties  river  sand  has  smooth, 
round  grains,  made  so  by  constant  friction  against  each  other 
when  distm-bed  by  water,  and  although  it  is  not  as  desirable 
as  pit  sand  it  may  be  used  with  satisfactory  results  in  all  ordi- 
nary concrete  work.  As  with  pit  sand,  however,  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  all  foreign  material  is  removed. 

Sea  Sand. — In  addition  to  the  undesirable  rounded  grains, 
sea  sand  may  also  carry  ocean  salts,  which,  unless  they  are  re- 
moved by  washing,  may  cause  trouble  by  attracting  moisture 
to  concrete  which  should  be  kept  perfectly  dry.  Such  salts 
occur,  however,  in  quantities  too  small  to  warrant  rejection 
of  sea  sand  when  it  is  needed  for  other  work. 

Aggregate. — This  constitutes  the  main  body  of  concrete,  the 
same  as  brick  or  stone  constitutes  the  body  of  other  masonry, 
and  is  responsible  to  a  corresponding  degree  for  the  efficiency 
of  the  concrete.  Sand,  which  acts  to  a  certain  extent  as  a  filler, 
is  provided  chiefly  as  an  aid  to  proper  distribution  of  and  some 
assistance  to  the  binding  quahty  of  cement.  The  three  prin- 
cipal forms  of  aggregate  are :   Crushed  stone,  gravel,  and  cinders. 

Crushed  Stone. — This  should  be  angular,  sharp-edged  frag- 
ments of  some  hard  stone,  such  as  granite,  trap,  gneiss,  or  quartz, 
having  an  average  maximum  edge  length  of  not  more  than  3 
inches  for  use  in  walls  or  other  work  from  4  to  6  inches  thick. 
The  edge  length  should  not  exceed  2  inches  for  fighter  work. 
Voids  vary  from  30%  to  50%,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
fragments.  Crushed  stone  wiU  prove  more  generaUy  effective 
than  gravel. 

Gravel. — This  is  inferior  to  crushed  stone  in  its  lack  of  sharp 
edges  and  corners  and  its  softer  composition.  It  should  be  free 
from  a  clay  coating  and  of  a  size  similar  to  that  of  crushed 
stone  heretofore  mentioned.  It  does  not  make  as  strong  con- 
crete as  crushed  stone,  but  is  nevertheless  used  extensively  and 
with  fairly  satisfactory  results. 

Voids  are  slightly  less  than  in  crushed  stone. 

Cinders. — This  form  of  aggregate  makes  much  weaker  con- 
crete than  crushed  stone  or  gravel  and  is  never  used  except  in 
work  where  nails  are  to  be  driven  into  the  concrete.  The  cin- 
ders must  be  very  hard  and  care  must  be  taken  in  ramming  not 


102   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

to  crush  them.  They,  therefore,  make  a  thin  mixture  impera- 
tive in  order  that  filling  may  progress  properly  with  a  minimum 
of  ramming. 

Water. — Warm  water  is  often  used  in  concrete  to  prevent  it 
from  freezing,  and  salt  water  in  the  proportion  of  five  pounds 
of  salt  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  is  used  for  a  similar  pur- 
pose when  there  is  no  objection  to  the  resultant  crystalline  de- 
posits which  invariably  appear  during  or  immediately  after 
setting.  However,  cold  water  may  be  used  in  freezing  weather 
with  no  perceptible  ill  effects  on  the  strength  of  the 
concrete. 

Re-enforcement. — This  is  provided  as  a  means  of  binding  con- 
crete so  effectively  that  portions  of  the  concrete  can  not  fall 
out  if  cracks  or  breaks  appear.  Woven  stock  wdre,  barbed  wire, 
mine  rails,  u'on  pipe,  old  wagon  tires,  or  any  similar  material 
can  be  used  to  good  advantage.  Re-enforcement  material  need 
not  be  galvanized,  as  concrete  will  not  rust  plain  iron.  It  is 
especially  necessary  to  re-enforce  thin  walls,  steps,  floors,  etc., 
and  even  in  thick,  heavy  work  much  more  satisfactory  results 
may  be  obtained  if  some  form  of  re-enforcement  is  used. 

Mixing. — Thorough  mixing  and  proper  proportions  of  all 
materials  used  are  absolutely  essential  in  any  concrete  construc- 
tion. Dry  cement  has  no  binding  force.  Coarse  aggregate  used 
at  one  time  and  finer  aggregate  used  at  another  cause  lack  of 
uniformity  in  strength,  or  too  much  of  one  material  or  too  httle 
of  another  may  so  impair  the  quahty  of  construction  as  to  render 
the  work  worthless. 

A  mechanical  mixer  is  recommended  only  for  use  when  large 
quantities  of  concrete  are  to  be  used;  otherwise  economy  de- 
mands mixing  by  hand. 

This  can  best  be  done  by  placing  proper  proportions  of  sand  and 
cement  on  a  tight-bottomed  platform  (side  and  end  walls  on  the 
platform  are  unnecessary)  and  turning  the  two  together  with  a 
shovel  until  the  mixture  acquires  a  uniform  color.  A  concavity 
is  then  made  in  the  top  of  the  pile  and  water  is  poured  into 
this  as  needed,  the  mixture  of  sand  and  cement  being  taken 
gradually  from  the  rim  of  the  crater  thus  produced.  Aggregate, 
previously  wetted  down,  is  then  mixed  into  the  "  mud,"  and  if 
necessary  more  water  is  added  until  the  concrete  is  thin  enough 
to  pour  readily  and  settle  uniformly  in  the  forms.  If  Portland 
cement  is  to  be  mixed  during  freezing  weather,  a  minimum  of 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  103 

water  should  be  used  or  else  heated.  For  table  of  estimates, 
see  page  362   Appendix. 

Forms. — It  is  always  advisable  to  lay  form  lumber  in  water 
and  let  it  swell  to  its  greatest  capacity  before  it  is  built  into 
forms;  otherwise  water  from  the  concrete  may  soak  into  and 
swell  it  to  an  extent  that  will  cause  it  to  buckle  as  it  expands 
and  thus  present  an  uneven  surface  against  which  to  place  the 
concrete. 

Forms  to  be  removed  and  re-erected  at  frequent  intervals 
should  be  scraped  clean  of  all  large  accumulations  of  concrete 
after  each  removal.  Except  when  the  nature  of  the  work  to 
be  done  demands  them,  sharp  corners  should  be  avoided.  This 
may  be  done  by  placing  a  triangular  strip  in  the  corner  of  the 
form  where  a  corner  of  the  concrete  will  be  exposed.  Inside 
corners  require  httle  or  no  attention  in  this  respect.  Nothing 
definite  can  be  offered  on  the  subject  of  construction  of  forms; 
the  work  to  be  done  always  determines  the  style  of  form  to 
be  used. 

Filling  Forms. — If  the  workman  has  reason  to  beheve  that  the 
nature  of  the  material  used  for  forms  is  such  that  the  concrete 
may  stick  and  chip  away  when  the  forms  are  removed  he  should 
avoid  such  trouble  by  Hning  the  forms  with  paper  each  time  they 
are  erected.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  however,  sticking  may 
be  prevented  by  wetting  the  forms  before  they  are  filled. 

If  concrete  is  to  be  dropped  more  than  4  or  5  feet  it  should 
be  re-mixed  before  ramming  begins;  otherwise  the  heavier  ma- 
terials may  be  deposited  at  the  bottom  rather  than  uniformly 
throughout  the  mass.  Thin  mixtures  do  not  require  as  much  ram- 
ming as  thick  ones,  and  the  latter  should  be  thoroughly  rammed 
as  filhng  progresses.  Ramming  can  best  be  done  in  narrow 
walls  with  a  5-foot  length  of  1-inch  pipe.  A  heavier  implement, 
preferably  a  4-  or  5-foot  wooden  ram  having  a  4-inch  face  and 
shod  with  iron,  will  be  found  more  effective  for  heavier  work. 
Thorough  ramming  adds  about  50%  to  the  strength  of  concrete 
and  consoUdates  it  from  4%  to  6%. 

Layers  to  be  built  on  later  should  be  left  rough  on  the  exposed 
surface  and  then  carefully  cleaned  and  well  wetted  before  the 
work  of  fiUing  is  resumed. 

Setting. — The  length  of  time  required  for  concrete  to  set 
depends  upon  the  character  and  kind  of  cement  used,  the  amount 
of  water  used  in  mixing,  the  degree  of  thoroughness  in  ramming, 


104   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

and  the  temperature  of  the  air.  Slow  setting  will  be  found 
preferable  to  quick  setting  concrete  in  practically  all  ordinary- 
work,  and  the  minimum  length  of  time  allowed  to  elapse  before 
the  forms  are  removed  should  not  in  any  case  be  less  than  forty- 
eight  hours.  Even  then  it  is  always  advisable  to  protect  the 
work  from  sudden  jars  or  strains  while  the  new  forms  are  being 
erected.     All  concrete  grows  harder  with  age.^ 

Cement  Finish. — Surfaces  to  be  finished,  top-dressed,  or  plas- 
tered with  cement  should  be  rough,  clean,  and  well  wetted.  The 
plaster,  consisting  of  one  part  cement  to  two  parts  sand,  must 
be  thoroughly  mixed  but  with  only  enough  water  to  leave  it 
plastic.  If  made  too  thin  it  will  fail  to  adhere  closely  to  the 
concrete.  It  must  be  kept  well  moistened  while  it  hardens. 
Neat  or  even  very  rich  cement  mortar  frequently  cracks  in 
setting  and  is  not,  therefore,  as  good  for  plaster  as  the  mortar 
carrying  the  per  cent  of  sand  heretofore  mentioned.  Natural 
cement  plaster  should  not  be  used  on  concrete  made  with  Portland 
cement  nor  should  Portland  cement  plaster  be  used  on  concrete 
made  with  natural  cement.  Plaster  made  of  equal  parts  of 
both  may  be  used  on  concrete  made  with  the  same  mixture, 
but  separation  of  the  plaster  and  concrete  frequently  occurs 
when  the  two  are  made  with  different  cements.  Top  dressing 
on  walks,  steps,  floors,  etc.,  should  keep  pace  with  the  work  of 
laying  the  concrete;  otherwise  the  concrete  and  dressing  will 
not  set  together 

Concrete  Blocks. — The  method  of  construction  followed  in 
making  these,  i.e.,  leaving  them  hollow,  constitutes  their  chief 
advantage  in  many  respects.  The  spaces  left  in  the  structures 
made  with  blocks  reduce  the  first  cost  of  construction  by  a 
corresponding  decrease  in  the  amount  of  material  required;  they 

1  In  recent  years  ntunerous  prominent  architects,  builders,  and 
scientists  declare  that  the  pjTamids  of  Egypt  are  of  concrete  con- 
struction, but  whether  or  not  such  a  theory  merits  serious  considera- 
tion can  not  be  discussed  here.  It  is  a  well-established  fact,  however, 
that  the  use  of  concrete  was  for  centuries  practically  a  lost  art,  con- 
clusive proof  to  this  effect  being  provided  by  the  existence  at  the 
present  time  of  buildings  erected  in  the  Orient  in  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries  and  known  definitely  to  have  been  constructed  of  concrete. 
A  prominent  architect  of  Milwaukee,  recently  returned  from  a  tovu*  of 
inspection  of  ancient  structures  in  that  locaUty,  states  that  upon  one 
occasion,  when  he  attempted  to  chip  away  fragments  of  concrete  from 
a  bridge,  the  most  vigorous  chiseling  resulted  only  in  a  stream  of  sparks 
and  failed  utterly  to  chip  the  concrete. 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  105 

may  serve  as  passages  for  flues,  wiring,  or  plumbing,  and  they 
prevent  sudden  changes  of  temperatui'e  within  buildings  having 
hollow  block  walls.  ^Moreover,  walls  made  of  hollow  blocks  may 
be  erected  and  completed  in  less  time  than  stone  or  brick  walls 
and  do  not  reqmre  near  as  much  mortar  in  laying.  In  strength 
they  are  equal  to  brick  walls  and  in  their  capacity  for  resistance 
to  fire  are  far  superior. 

Successful  block  construction,  however,  requires  the  use  of  a 
block  machine,  but  this  expense  will  prove  disproportionate  to 
other  expenses  unless  the  proposed  structure  will  require  a  very 
large  number  of  blocks.  The  minimum  cost  of  a  rehable  ma- 
chine equipped  with  enough  different  moulds  for  all  ordinary 
work  is  about  SoO.OO.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  forms  of 
lumber  are  much  cheaper  for  limited  construction. 

One  of  the  chief  disadvantages  of  hollow-block  waUs  is  their 
tendency  to  spUt  when  improper  proportions  are  used  in  the 
concrete,  when  careless  mixing  has  been  allowed,  or  when  the 
blocks  are  laid  before  they  are  firmly  set.  Some  medical  au- 
thorities also  contend  that  residences  hi  vmg  hoUow-block  walls 
are  unsanitary,  because  such  waUs  attract  and  retain  moisture. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  this  is  due  to  improper  con- 
struction. 

The  general  consensus  of  opinion  among  builders  seems  to  be 
in  favor  of  re-enforced  sohd  walls  for  residences  and  hollow  block 
waUs  for  other  buildings. 

PAINTING 

Object. — Paint  is  used  for  two  principal  purposes,  viz.:  (1)  To 
protect  iron  or  wood  building  material  from  weathering,  and 
(2)  to  seciu-e  a  more  pleasing  external  appearance  of  buildings 
and  other  structm-es.  Used  on  iron  it  prevents  rust  and  on  wood 
it  prevents  the  entrance  of  moisture,  which  would  eventually  cause 
more  or  less  damage  through  rotting  the  material. 

Composition. — Most  paints  used  in  all  ordinary  outside  and 
inside  work  consist  chiefly  of  white  lead  or  zinc  oxide  ground 
in  raw  linseed  oil  and  having  the  coloring  matter  added  to  the 
mixture  before  it  leaves  the  factory.  Body  matter  invariably 
settles  to  the  bottom  when  the  paint  is  left  standing  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time,  and  must,  therefore,  be  stirred  and 
forced  to  mix  with  the  oil  before  it  can  be  used. 

Ready-made  paints  are  usually  mixed  thicker  than  is  neces- 


106   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

sary  or  even  desirable,  but  this  trouble  may  be  overcome  by 
adding  boiled  oil  in  quantities  which  reduce  the  paint  to  the 
desired  thinness;  Thinning  with  raw  oil  necessitates  the  addition 
of  a  drier  if  the  work  being  done  requires  prompt  hardening. 
Commercial  driers  are  carried  in  stock  by  practically  all  dealers 
in  paint,  but  if  the  work  is  remote  from  such  a  source  of  supply 
then  sulphate  of  zinc,  litharge,  or  sugar  of  lead  may  be  used  in 
the  proportion  of  two  teaspoonfuls  to  five  pounds  of  prepared 
paint  of  any  color.  Many  painters  prefer  what  is  known  as 
''  Japan  varnish,"  but  if  this  is  used  in  excess  it  will  cause  the 
paint  to  crack  as  it  hardens.  Turpentine  is  also  frequently 
used  for  thinning,  except  in  the  first  coat.  It  is  cheaper  than 
oil  and  causes  the  paint  to  flow  more  readily  and  uniformly 
from  the  brush.  It  may  be  used  in  inside  w^ork  with  good  re- 
sults, but  reduces  the  firmness  of  paint  to  a  degree  that  renders 
it  unfit  for  outside  work. 

In  emergencies  kerosene  (coal  oil)  may  also  be  used  as  a  thinner, 
but  can  be  used  with  better  success  in  stains  than  in  paints. 
If  wax  is  melted  and  thoroughly  mixed  into  a  stain  thinned 
with  coal  oil  it  will  produce  a  smooth,  glossy  finish. 

Colors. — Ready  mixed  coloring  matter  may  be  secured  from 
any  paint  dealer.  Like  paint,  it  should  be  well  stirred  before 
it  is  added,  and  finally  should  be  stirred  into  the  paint  till 
the  whole  mass  assumes  a  uniform  color. 

Coats. — From  three  to  five  coats  are  applied  in  all  high-grade 
painting,  but  in  all  common  work  three  coats  wiU  be  found  suf- 
ficient. Surfaces  to  be  painted  must  be  perfectly  clean  and  dry, 
and  if  of  lumber,  must  be  thoroughly  seasoned.  The  first  coat, 
known  as  the  "  primer  "  or  "  priming,"  should  not  carry  too 
much  oil  or  turpentine,  since  these  may  sink  into  woodwork  and 
leave  a  large  per  cent  of  the  paint  body  unevenly  distributed 
over  the  surface,  where  it  will  eventually  peel  away.  Very  thin 
paint  will  not  "  stand,"  or  adhere  well,  if  used  on  an  iron  sur- 
face. The  second  coat  should  not  be  applied  before  the  primer 
is  thoroughly  hardened.  The  last  coat,  in  which  the  coloring 
matter  is  placed,  may  be  finished  "  dull  "  or  in  "  gloss,"  Dull 
or  dead  finish  results  from  the  use  of  turpentine  alone  as  a  thin- 
ner; a  gloss  finish  may  be  secured  by  using  equal  parts  of  oil 
and  turpentine  for  thinning.  Two  coats  are  usually  sufficient 
on  iron  surfaces,  but  the  paint  used  in  this  work  should  have  a 
body  composed  of  one  of  the  oxids  of  iron,  since  white  lead,  in 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  107 

common  use  in  paint  for  woodwork,  will  not  stand  on  iron  and 
must  therefore  be  renewed  at  frequent  intervals.  The  red  paint 
known  to  laymen  as  "  railroad  "  paint  can  be  used  with  equally- 
good  results  on  either  wood  or  ii'on.  It  carries  a  large  per  cent 
of  drier,  is  cheap  and  quite  generally  effective. 

Amount  of  Paint  Required  for  One  Square. — For  primer  work 
more  paint  per  square  is  of  course  necessary  than  for  succeed- 
ing coats,  this  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  open  pores  of  the 
siu-face  to  be  painted  must  be  filled  before  an  even  surface  of 
paint  can  be  obtained.  Usually,  on  dressed  lumber,  from  five 
to  six  pounds  of  thin  keg  paint  per  square  will  be  found  suffi- 
cient for  the  primer.  If  the  lumber  is  undressed  and  very 
rough  then  this  amount  must  be  increased  even  as  much  occa- 
sionally as  50%  or  75%. 

After  a  firm  primer  has  been  secured  the  first  coat  will  re- 
quire approximately  four  pounds  of  keg  paint  per  square,  while 
the  second  and  succeeding  courses  should  not  require  more  than 
two  and  one-half  or  tliree  pounds. 

Care  of  Paint  Brushes. — These  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  dried  after  using  and  before  they  are  stored  away.  Clean- 
ing can  best  be  done  by  alternate  soaking  in  coal  oil,  turpen- 
tine, gasoline,  or  hnseed  oil  and  pressing  or  kneading  to  remove 
paint.  When  free  from  all  paint  the  bristles  maj"  be  worked  dry 
with  paper  or  cloth.  If  the  paint  is  not  to  be  removed,  then 
the  brushes  should  be  stored  in  oil  to  prevent  hardening. 

Brushes  having  the  bristles  set  in  rubber  or  cement  should 
never  be  boiled :  boihng  will  dissolve  the  binding  and  the  bristles 
will  be  released. 

FENCES 

On  some  of  the  National  Forests,  especially  in  the  West, 
where  corrals  and  drift  fences  must  be  provided  for  the  proper 
handhng  of  stock,  the  field  man  may  find  it  necessary  to  de- 
vote a  large  portion  of  his  time  to  the  inspection,  repair,  or  even 
construction  of  fences. 

These  may  be  of  stone,  logs,  rails,  brush,  plank,  wire,  or  pick- 
ets, depending  upon  the  supply  of  material  available  and  the 
permanent  or  temporary  nature  of  the  fence  to  be  built.  Plank 
and  wire  are  the  most  widely  used  materials,  and  fences  con- 
structed of  these  will  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Stone. — A  very  important  item  in  the  construction  of  a  stone 


108   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


fence,  or  "wall,"  is  the  substantiality  of  the  side  walls.  If  these 
are  to  be  4  or  5  feet  high  the  base  of  the  wall  should  be  at  least 
3  feet  thick.  Side  walls  are  built  up  separately  with  the  larger 
stones  at  the  bottom  and  are  drawn  in  toward  each  other  as  the 

top  is  reached,  until  at  the  very 
top  the  fence  has  about  the 
same  thickness  as  one  side  wall. 
The  space  between  the  side  walls 
is  kept  filled  with  smaller  stones, 
filling  keeping  pace  with  the 
growth  of  the  walls.  Tie  stones 
are  used  after  the  side  walls  have 
been  brought  together.  A  cross 
section  of  a  stone  fence  is  sho"s\Ti 
in  Fig.  87. 

Logs. — Log  fences  may  be  con- 
structed as     shown    in    Fig.    88. 
The    short    cross    logs    need    not 
exceed  4  feet  in  length,   and  are 
fitted    with    notches    into    which 
the  long    logs    are    sunk.     These 
are  also  notched  on  the  upper  side  immediately  over  the  cross 
logs  and  the  next  cross  logs  above  are  dropped  into  the  notches. 
Proper  construction  of  log  fences  requires  them  to  be  built  up 


Fig.  87. — Cross-section  of  a 
stone  fence. 


Log  fence. 
Fig.  88. — Method  of  laying  ground  logs. 


perpendicularly  in  order  to  prevent  the  logs  from  slipping.  This 
method  of  construction  is  especially  necessary  along  steep  hill- 
sides. 

Rails. — There  are  two  principal  methods  of  constructing  rail 
fences,  although  a  third  method  is  the  same  as  that  employed 
in  building  log  fences.  The  most  widely  used  style  of  rail  fence, 
and  one  that  is  common  to  all  parts  of  the  South  and  to  many 
parts  of  the  West  and  middle  West,  is  known  as  the  "  worm  " 
fence,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  manner  in  which  the  rails 
are  laid.     The  first  rails,  or  the  'Aground"  rails,  are  laid  as 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


109 


sliowTi  in  Fig.  89.     Succeeding  tiers  must  be  placed  firmly  on 
these  and  the  corners  or  "  locks  "  must  be  built  up  exactly  per- 


FlG. 


-Worm  rail  fence.     ISIethod  of  laying  ground  rails. 


pendicular.  The  latter  may  be  fastened  by  means  of  "  stake  " 
rails  set  as  shown  in  Fig.  90,  and  these  are  then  held  in  place 
by  the  "  riders."  Such  a  fence  is  known  as  a  "  staked  and 
ridered  worm  "  fence.     The  method  of   "  cross  "  staking  the 


Cross  stakes  at  a  lock. 


Side  stakes  at  a  lock. 


Panel  stakes. 
Fig.  90. 


110   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

locks  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  figure.  Its  chief  disadvantage 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  stake  rails  take  up  considerable  ground 
along  either  side  of  the  fence.  However,  the  method  is  about 
the  most  common  one  used. 

The  second  method  shown,  where  the  crosses  of  the  stake  rails 
are  at  right  angles  to  the  hne  of  fence,  is  also  widely  used.  A 
variation  of  this  method  requires  the  foot  of  either  stake  to  be 
set  close  against  the  ground  rail  at  the  next  lock. 

A  third  method  of  staking  is  also  sho-^vn  in  this  figure  and 
provides  for  the  staking  of  each  panel  at  or  near  its  center. 
Heavy  poles,  sometimes  long  enough  to  cover  six  or  eight  panels, 
may  be  used  for  riders. 

Worm  fences  for  corrals  should  not  have  short  sharp  corners. 

These  present  excellent  opportunities  for  viciously  inchned 
animals  to  "  hem  "  or  "  corner  "  the  weaker  ones  and  punish 
them  severely. 

A  second  general  style  of  rail  fence,  known  as  a  "  post  and 
rail"  fence,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  91.  Such  fences  may  be  built 
of  long  poles,  and  are  therefore  especially  adapted  for  corrals 


Fig.  91. — Post  and  rail  fence. 


and  other  small  enclosures  where  stock  is  to  be  confined  for 
short  periods.  Posts  are  set  in  pairs  at  desired  intervals  and 
are  wired  or  otherwise  fastened  together,  once  at  or  near  the 
ground  and  again  near  the  tops.  A  third  tie  at  or  near  the 
middle  of  the  posts  may  also  be  used  if  the  fence  is  to  be  8  or 
10  feet  high.  This  prevents  the  posts  from  spreading  and 
allowing  displacement  of  the  rails  or  poles.  \\Tiere  long,  heavy 
poles  are  to  be  used  and  it  is  not  considered  necessary  to  start 
the  fence  at  the  ground,  blocks  may  be  cut  the  desired  length 
and  set  endwise  under  the  ends  of  the  lower  poles.     Top  poles 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


111 


may  be  laid  on  the  top  ties,  thus  serving  to  bind  the  posts  to- 
gether more  securely.  Corral  fences  of  this  kind  should  have 
rounded  corners. 

Pickets. — These  are  known  in  many  locahties  as  "  palings," 
although  the  latter  term  is  generally  appUed  to  the  split  variety 
of  pickets  which  are  so  widely  used  in  fences  in  the  South  and 
Southeast.  The  construction  of  a  picket  fence  consists  merely 
in  setting  the  posts  at  required  intervals,  connecting  them  with 
''  stringers,"  usually  two  in  number,  and  naiUng  the  pickets  to 
the  stringers.  The  pickets  should  be  set  perpendicularly  rather 
than  at  right  angles  to  the  stringers,  this  rule  of  construction 
holding  good  even  when  the  fence  ascends  or  descends  steep 
slopes.  The  common  idea  that  more  pickets  are  required  in  fenc- 
ing through  hilly  country  than  across  level  country  is  erroneous, 
as  may  be  seen  by  observing  Fig.  92. 

In  this  figure  it  is  assumed  that  the  pickets  are  set  perpendicu- 
larly.    The  line  1  indicates  a  length  of  fence  built  across  a  hill, 


Fig.  92. 


while  line  2  represents  the  horizontal  length.  More  posts  will  be 
required  in  line  1  than  in  line  2  if  the  stringer  lengths  are  to 
be  the  same,  and  in  any  case  the  amount  of  stringer  material 
must  be  increased,  but  the  number  of  pickets  will  be  the  same 
in  both  lines. 

SpKt  pickets,  or  paUngs,  which  are  usually  too  thick  and  irreg- 
ular to  be  nailed  to  stringers,  may  be  fastened  upright  by  means 
of  wires  attached  to  the  posts  and  woven  about  the  paUngs  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  93.  The  wires  are  stapled  securely  to  the 
first  post  but  loosely  to  the  second  until  the  panel  has  been 
filled  with  paUngs.  They  are  then  drawn  as  tight  as  possible 
and  securely  stapled  to  the  next  post.  Succeeding  panels  are 
constructed  in  a  similar  manner.  Not  less  than  No.  12  gauge 
wire  should  be  used,  and  No.  9  will  be  found  much  better. 


112   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Plank. — The  construction  of  a  plank  fence  is  so  simple  that  little 
need  be  said  on  the  subject.  If  care  is  taken  to  trim  or  set  the 
posts  in  such  a  way  that  a  flat  surface  is  presented  to  the  planks, 


in 


ff 


Fig.  93. — Picket  or  "paling"  fence. 

and  if  the  latter  are  sound  and  securely  nailed  to  the  posts,  a 
substantial  fence  will  be  the  result.  Red  oak  {Quercus  rubra), 
Spanish  oak  {Q.  digitata),  blackjack  (Q.  marilandica),  and  syca- 
more {Platanus  occidentalis)  are  especially  hable  to  warp,  crack, 
twist,  or  spUt  and  should  never  be  used  in  a  plank  fence.  The 
chief  disadvantage  of  any  plank  fence  is  its  susceptibiUty  to 
fire  and  to  cUmatic  conditions. 

Brush. — A  brush  fence  consists  merely  of  a  row  of  brush  piled 
high  enough  to  prevent  stock  from  passing  over  it.  It  is  the 
very  poorest  form  of  a  fence  and  should  never  be  used  if  other 
material  is  available.  It  is  very  susceptible  to  fire,  takes  up  a 
large  amount  of  ground,  is  unsightly,  soon  rots  and  settles  and 
requires  constant  repairing. 

Barbed  Wire. — Well-set  comer  posts  and  proper  tension  and 
attachment  of  wires  are  the  most  important  points  to  consider 


2-point  or  "cattle"  wire. 


4-point  or  "hog"  wire. 


Fig.  94. 


in  building  barbed  wire  fence.  After  the  fence  row  has  been 
brushed  out  and  the  posts  set  the  lower  wire  should  be  laid 
first,  since  trouble  will  be  had  in  separating  them  if  all  the 
wires  are  laid  at  once.     The  common  practice  of  carrying  the 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  113 

spool  or  reel  of  wire  along  the  fence  row  is  to  be  avoided  if  this 
is  at  all  possible.  It  is  not  only  tedious  work,  but  it  is  also  a 
dangerous  practice  if  the  wire  is  not  properly  wound  on  the 
spool.  The  best  method  of  laying  wii'e  is  to  bore  a  2-inch  hole 
through  a  heavy  plank,  place  the  plank  flat  on  the  groimd,  set 
the  spool  endwise  on  it  and  hold  it  there  by  means  of  a  crow- 
bar thrust  through  the  spool  and  plank  into  the  ground.  The 
wire  may  then  be  laid  out  with  a  saddle  horse,  the  rider  secur- 
ing the  wdre  to  the  saddle  horn  with  two  or  three  turns  of  a 
12-  or  14-foot  rope  tied  into  the  wire  and  holding  the  loose  end 
of  the  rope  in  his  hand.  When,  fastened  to  the  horn  in  this 
manner  the  rope  may  be  released  instantly  if  this  becomes  nec- 
essarj'.  The  wire  itself  should  never  be  looped  or  tied  to  the 
horn.  The  other  man  remains  at  the  spool  and  holds  the  upper 
end  of  the  crowbar.  Friction  of  the  spool  against  the  plank 
prevents  it  from  revolving  too  rapidly  and  httle  trouble  ^ath 
tangles  need  be  expected.  Spools  carry  from  80  to  110  rods 
of  wire  weighing  approximately  one  pound  per  rod,  and  such  a 
length  of  wire  may  be  laid  out  with  an  average  size  animal  trained 
to  pull  under  the  saddle.  If  not  so  trained,  harness  must  be 
used. 

However,  this  method  of  laying  wii^e  can  be  followed  only 
with  difficulty  if  the  wire  is  to  be  hung  to  trees  growing  along 
the  fence  hne.  Hanging  it  in  this  manner  necessitates  cutting 
and  splicing  if  the  wire  is  to  pass  on  different  sides  of  trees. 

Tension  of  wires  crossing  hills  and  hollows  should  be  tested 
at  the  highest  and  lowest  points.  This  should  not  be  done  by 
seizing  the  wire  with  the  hands,  but  should  be  accomphshed 
by  means  of  a  heavy  pole  or  crowbar  placed  across  the  wire 
and  forced  do-wTiward  or  upward.  Defective  wires,  or  even 
sound  wires  under  great  tension,  may  suddenly  break,  and  when 
this  occurs  the  ends  recoil  with  a  spiral  twisting  motion  that 
may  result  in  serious  injuries  to  the  workmen  standing  near. 

Staples  should  be  set  with  the  points  in  a  line  diagonally 
across  the  grain  of  the  posts.  If  driven  in  this  manner  they 
are  much  less  likely  to  spht  the  wood  and  always  hold  the  wire 
more  secm-ely.  One-inch  staples  should  be  used  in  hardwood, 
114  inch  in  medium  hardwood,  and  13^  inch  in  softwood. 

The  stretcher  must  be  operated  with  steady,  regular  move- 
ments and  must  be  so  attached  to  the  wire  that  it  will  not  sKp. 
The  best  splice  for  barbed  wire  is  the  same  as  that  used  in 


114   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

splicing  telephone  wire  and  which  is  known  as  the  Western 
Electric  joint.     See  Fig.  40. 

If  gloves  are  to  be  worn  they  should  be  of  hard,  stiff  leather 
and  should  fit  loosely  in  order  that  they  may  be  removed  in- 
stantly if  the  barbs  hang  in  them.  Soft  cloth  gloves  should  never 
be  worn.  They  not  only  allow  the  barbs  to  injure  the  hands, 
but  they  may  become  so  badly  entangled  on  the  barbs  that  in 
case  the  wire  breaks  or  other  accidents  occur  the  workman  may 
suffer  serious  injuries. 

Woven  Wire. — This  is  hung  with  the  narrow  meshes  at  the 
bottom,  and,  hke  barbed  wire,  must  be  tightly  stretched  and  se- 
curely stapled  to  well-set  posts  if  a  substantial  fence  is  desired. 


General  stock  fence. 


Fig.  95. 


{^^~ 

Sheep  and  hog  fence. 


Fig.  96. — Block  and  tackle  stretcher  for  woven  wire  fencing. 


Its  construction  prevents  it  from  being  laid  out  from  a  station- 
ary reel,  and  the  roll  or  spool  must  therefore  be  revolved  along 
the  cleared  fence  row  after  the  loose  end  has  been  made  fast  to 
some  stationary  object.  The  heavy  top  and  bottom  wires  should 
be  securely  stapled  to  each  post,  but,  except  in  rare  cases,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  staple  all  the  intermediate  wires  so  often.     The 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


115 


perpendicular  stay  wires  are  not  stapled.  No  trouble  will  be 
experienced  with  buckKng  line  wires  stretched  across  ridges  and 
hollows  if  the  fence  is  hung  so  the  stay  wires  set  perpendicularly. 
Sphces  in  woven  wire  are  made  the  same  as  in  barbed  wire, 
each  line  wire  in  one  length  being  sphced  to  the  corresponding 
wire  in  the  other.  Stretchers  used  on  woven  wire  consist  of  a 
pair  of  heavy  wooden  clamps  which  are  bolted  together  through 
the  meshes  and  w^hich  are  drawn  in  by  means  of  a  double  set 
of  claws  working  on  a  chain  attached  to  a  tree  or  heavy  post. 
Another  style  of  stretcher  is  operated  by  means  of  a  team  hitched 
to  a  block  and  tackle. 

Comer  Posts. — For  ordinary  smooth  or  barbed  wire  these 
need  be  no  larger  than  the  hne  posts,  but  should  be  from  12  tc 
18  inches  longer  and  set  deeper 
in  the  ground.  Woven  wire,  by 
reason  of  the  increased  strain  it 
imposes  on  a  corner  post  while 
stretching  is  in  progress,  requires 
heavier  corner  posts.  They 
should  be  not  less  than  8  inches 
in  top  diameter  and  should  be 
at  least  9  feet  long.  Being  of 
this  size  they  are  too  large  and 
heavy  to  be  driven  with  a  post 

maul  and  must  therefore  be  set.  They  should  either  be  roofed 
Uke  a  telephone  pole  or  rounded  off  at  the  upper  end  and 
painted  or  smeared  with  tar  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  water. 

Setting  and  Bracing. — The  best  method  of  setting  and  bracing 
a  corner  post  is  shown  in  Fig.  97,  the  same  method  with  hghter 
material  also  being  effective  for  corner  posts  to  which  smooth 
or  barbed  wire  is  to  be  hung. 

For  woven  wire  the  post  should  be  set  not  less  than  3  feet, 
preferably  4  feet,  in  the  ground,  and  should  be  firmly  tamped. 
The  brace  should  be  cut  long  enough  to  allow  the  lower  end  to 
rest  on  a  flat  stone,  shown  at  1,  set  at  least  12  feet  from  the 
foot  of  the  post  and  directly  in  line  with  the  fence.  The  upper 
end  of  the  brace  is  fitted  into  a  notch  cut  about  8  inches  below 
the  upper  end  of  the  post  and  is  fastened  there  with  a  20-d  or 
60-d  spike,  which  will  prevent  its  lateral  displacement.  Six  or 
eight  strands  of  not  less  than  No.  12  gauge  smooth  or  barbed 
wire  are  then  wrapped  about  the  low^er  end  of  the  brace  and 


^^ 

7 

3 

fe^ 

i^ 

1 

Fig.  97. — Brace  for  corner  post. 


116   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

corner  post  as  shown  in  the  figure  and  are  twisted  together  with 
an  iron  rod  or  a  stick.  If  a  stick  is  used  it  should  have  one 
end  nailed  to  the  brace  after  the  wires  have  been  twisted  tight. 
An  iron  rod  may  be  driven  into  the  ground. 

Line  Posts. — The  most  durable  woods  for  any  fence  posts  are 
white  oak  (Quercus  alba),  post  oak  (Q.  minor),  black  locust  {Ro- 
binia  pseudacacia) ,  sassafras  (Sassafras  sassafras),  red  mulberry 
(Morus  rubra),  any  of  the  cedars  or  junipers,  and  dead  heart- 
pine,  which  carries  a  large  amount  of  pitch.  All  posts  should 
be  thoroughly  seasoned  before  they  are  set. 

Line  posts  need  not  exceed  4  or  5  inches  in  diameter  nor  63^^ 
or  7  feet  in  length.  If  they  are  to  be  driven,  the  upper  ends 
should  be  rounded  off  to  prevent  spUtting  or  battering  when 
the  maul  is  used.  The  points  should  not  be  drawn  out  fine, 
but  should  be  at  least  3^2  inch  across  the  tip  and  not  less  than 
16  inches  long.  Shoulders  should  be  tapering  rather  than  blunt. 
Posts  to  be  set  do  not  of  course  require  sharpening.  The  prac- 
tice of  burning  or  charring  the  points  is  not  recommended,  since 
posts  so  treated  seem  to  attract  and  hold  moisture  more  than 
when  not.     For  an  illustration  of  a  sharpening  rack  see  Fig.  98o 


Fig.  98. — Rack  for  sharpening  posts. 


Setting  or  Driving. — Line  posts  should  always  be  driven  rather 
than  set  if  this  is  at  aU  practicable.  A  heavy,  sharp-pointed 
instrument,  known  throughout  the  South  as  a  "  spud,"  may  be 
used  in  starting  a  hole,  or  a  crowbar  may  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  sharpened  post  is  placed  in  the  hole  and  is  then 
settled  firmly  with  an  iron  maul  weighing  from  twelve  to  twenty 
pounds.  This  not  only  makes  a  more  substantial  fence  but  also 
eliminates  the  extra  labor  that  would  be  required  in  digging 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


117 


the  holes  and  afterward  tamping  the  posts,  items  of  labor  which 
involve  greater  expense  than  sharpening  and  driving  the  posts. 

If  hard  or  stony  ground  prohibits  driving,  posts  may  be  set 
into  holes,  large  end  downward,  and  fu'mly  tamped.  The  holes 
should  not  have  a  greater  diameter  than  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  removal  of  the  dirt  and  insertion  of  the  posts.  Fine  dry 
dirt  should  be  firmly  packed  about  the  posts  and  a  watershed 
at  least  3  inches  high  should  be  left  above  the  ground.  Mud, 
or  even  very  damp  dirt,  does  not  make  satisfactory  tamping 
material.  As  it  dries  it  will  settle  away  from  and  allow  the  post 
to  work  loose. 

Holes  should  be  from  14  to  20  inches  deep.  Post  spaces  for 
woven  wire  should  not  exceed  one  rod,  but  in  smooth  or  barbed 
wire  fences  where  stays  are  to  be  used  may  be  as  long  as  3  or 
4  rods. 

Lightning  Rods. — These  are  provided  as  a  means  of  carrying 
electricity  from  the  wires  into  the  ground.  The  simplest  form 
is  made  of  ordinary  smooth  wire,  preferably  of  No.  12  gauge, 
which  is  stapled  downward  along  the  post,  the  lower  end  being 
placed  in  permanently  moist  earth.  To  insure  its  contact  with 
such  earth  the  wire  should  be  attached  before  the  post  is  set. 
Later  it  is  WTapped  closely  about  each  wire  in  the  fence.  One 
such  wire  should  be  attached  to  every  fourth  or  fifth  post  along 
fences  where  stock  congregate  for  water  or  for  protection  against 
extreme  weather.  Otherwise  one  wire  to  every  ten  posts  will  be 
found  sufficient. 

Gates. — Two  very  common  varieties  of  fence  gates  are  shown 
in  Fig.  99,  one  being  known  as  a  ''  sUding  "  gate  and  the  other 


Swinging. 


Ef 


Fig.  99. — Gates. 


SUding. 


118   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


as  a  "  swinging  "  gate.  Properly  constructed  and  firmly  hung 
swinging  gates  are  preferable  to  any  style  of  sliding  gate,  but 
with  the  greater  first  cost  of  construction  the  cost  of  mainte- 
nance is  also  greater.  Moreover,  owing  to  a  g(?neral  impression 
on  the  part  of  the  traveling  public  that  such  gates  lock  auto- 
matically when  slammed  shut,  the  danger  of  their  being  left  open 
is  much  greater  than  that  involved  in  the  use  of  a  sliding 
gate. 

Hinges  for  swinging  gates  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
gates  may  swing  out  of  the  fence  line  in  either  direction,  and 
the  style  of  hinge  shown  in  Fig,  100  is  recommended  as  being  the 

most  satisfactory  in  this  respect. 
Another  convenient  and  durable 
style  of  hinge,  which  may  be  made 
from  an  old  wagon  tire  or  from 
other  discarded  iron  of  the  same 
strength,  is  not  fitted  with  the  lag  screw  which  fastens  into  the 
post,  but  consists  merely  of  a  heavy  staple,  into  which  a  bent 
strap  is  fitted. 

Any  swinging  gate  should  be  securely  braced  from  the  lower 
hinge  to  the  corner  diagonally  opposite,  and  when  possible  should 
also  be  guyed  to  the  gate  post  as  shown  in  Fig.  101.     Both  gate 


Fig.  100. — Gate  hinge. 


Fig.  101. — Gate  guy. 


Fig.  102.— Gate  tie. 


posts  in  a  fence  may  be  tied  together  as  shown  in  Fig.  102,  but 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  such  ties  are  high  enough  to 
permit  the  passage  of  loaded  vehicles  beneath  them. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  119 

CARPENTER'S   KIT 

For  ordinary  rough  work  about  a  station  a  carpenter's  kit 
should  inckide  the  following  tools: 

1  Handsaw,  cross  cut  1  Plane,  block 

1  Handsaw,  rip  4  Chisels,   %-,  l^-,  1-      and      IH- 

1  Saw,  keyhole,  or  compass  inch 

1  Square  1  Level-plvunb 

1  Brace  1  Caliper 

13  Bits  auger,  in  Vie-inch  sizes  1  Compass 

from  '^'le-  to  1-inch,  inclusive  1  Rule,  caUper 

3  Bits,  gimlet,   Js-.  ^/i6-  and  1  Wrench,  monkey 
M-inch  1  Hammer,  claw 

4  Bits,  drill,  brace,  M-.  ^/le-,  3  Files,  saw,  assorted  sizes 
3  8-  and  "/i6-inch  1  Grindstone 

1  Plane,  jack  1  Whetstone 

Fine  work  requires  a  much  more  elaborate  set,  but  it  is  assumed 
that  a  professional  carpenter  will  be  employed  when  such  work 
is  to  be  done  and  that  he  will  furnish  his  own  tools.  It  is  obvi- 
ously impracticable  for  every  field  man  to  have  access  to  a  kit 
even  as  hmited  as  that  listed  above,  but  in  most  instances  he  will 
gradually  acquire  many  such  tools  for  his  own  personal  use. 
Handsaws,  squares,  hammers,  and  grindstones  may  be  secured 
by  requisition,  as  may  also  numerous  other  tools  if  the  nature 
of  the  w^ork  to  be  done  demands  them.  At  any  rate,  if  he  feels 
that  his  personal  needs  demand  the  purchase  of  carpenter  tools 
the  field  man  will  do  well  to  confine  his  purchases  to  such  tools 
as  are  described  below.  A  complete  kit  of  high-grade  tools 
includes  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  pieces,  together  with  the 
chest  weighs  from  seventy-five  to  two  hundred  pounds  and 
costs  from  S25.00  to  $150.00,  or  even  more. 

Handsaws. — Cross-Cut. — The  two  flat  surfaces  of  this  are 
known  as  the  "  face  "  and  the  "  back,"  the  former  being  the 
side  next  the  carpenter  as  he  holds  the  handle  of  the  saw  in  his 
right  hand,  the  latter  being  the  opposite  side.  The  end  of  the 
cutting  edge  next  the  handle  is  the  ''  heel,"  the  other  end  the 
"  point."  Handsaws  are  made  in  various  sizes,  each  of  which 
may  be  expressed  in  a  different  manner  by  different  carpenters. 
Thus  one  carpenter  may  designate  a  saw  as  No.  16  because  it 
is  made  of  what  is  known  as  "  16  spring  steel  ";  another  car- 
penter may  refer  to  the  same  saw  as  a  No.  11  because  it  has 
eleven  teeth  to  the  inch.  Spring  steel  numbers  are  usually  in- 
dicated on  the  face  along  with  the  manufacturer's  name  or 
trade-mark;    tooth  numbers  are  stamped  on  the  face  near  the 


120   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

heel.  Larger  numbers  of  the  spring  steel  indicate  greater  tough- 
ness and  flexibility  of  the  blade;  larger  tooth  numbers  indicate 
more  teeth  per  inch  and  consequently  a  finer  cutting  edge. 
Teeth  are  frequently  known  as  "  points,"  and  a  saw  may  be 
designated  as  a  "  six-point  "  or  "  eight-point  "  saw.  A  nine- 
point  saw  of  12  spring  steel  will  be  found  most  satisfactory  for 


514  points  to  the  inch.     6  points  to  the  inch.      9  points  to  the  inch. 
Fig.  103. — Handsaw  teeth. 

general  field  work,  as  it  may  be  used  with  equally  good  results 
in  hard  or  soft  lumber.  It  should  have  a  24-  or  26-inch  blade 
with  a  straight  back  rather  than  a  skew  back. 

The  straight-back  variety  may  be  used  as  a  straight  edge  in 
case  nothing  else  longer  than  a  foot-rule  is  available.  The  cost 
is  about  SI. 25  or  $1.50. 

Filing  Handsaws. — A  thoroughly  practical  knowledge  of 
handsaw  fihng  can  be  acquired  only  by  experience,  and  the 
beginner  may  expect  to  damage  more  or  less  the  first  few  saws 
he  attempts  to  file.  He  should  bear  in  mind  that  unless  some 
teeth  have  been  completely  broken  out,  or  at  least  so  badly 
dulled  that  the  entire  set  must  be  filed  down,  he  need  not  exert 
severe  pressure  on  his  file.  Any  good  sharp  file  will  cut  away 
the  teeth  faster  than  he  at  first  realizes,  and  unless  he  exercises 
great  caution  he  is  more  than  hkely  to  find  that  he  has  caused 
himseK  considerable  extra  work  in  the  final  "  jointing  up." 

The  saw  should  be  held  firmly  in  a  clamp  manufactured  espe- 
cially for  this  purpose,  or,  if  no  such  clamp  is  available,  the  im- 
provised article  may  be  made  from  two  boards  about  the  length 
of  the  saw-blade.  These  should  have  their  upper  outer  edges 
beveled  in  order  to  afford  the  file  free  access  to  the  saw-teeth. 
The  blade  is  placed  between  the  boards  and  the  latter  are  then 
fastened  in  a  vise.  After  the  blade  has  been  made  secure  the 
filer  should  begin,  preferably  at  the  heel  of  the  saw,  and  file  all 
teeth  cutting  on  one  side  of  the  blade  before  he  begins  on  the 
others.  Assuming  that  he  stands  at  the  vise  in  such  a  position 
that  the  heel  of  the  upturned  blade  is  to  his  left,  he  places  his 
file  horizontally  across  the  blade,  then  moves  the  file  handle 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  121 

toward  his  left  until  the  file  drops  squarely  down  before  the 
first  tooth  that  cuts  on  the  side  opposite  him,  in  this  case  the 
back  of  the  saw,  and  files  the  forward  edge  of  that  tooth.  The 
next  tooth  on  that  side  is  then  filed  and  this  operation  is  repeated 
on  down  to  the  point  of  the  blade.  The  saw  is  then  reversed  in 
the  clamp,  or  vise,  and  the  remaining  teeth  are  filed  in  a  similar 
manner.  After  all  the  points  have  been  sharpened  it  then  be- 
comes necessary  to  joint  the  saw,  that  is,  see  that  no  long  or 
short  points  are  left.  Long  points  cause  a  saw  to  jump,  hang, 
feed  to  one  side,  or  push  hard.  Short  points  can  not  cut,  and 
the  only  remedy  in  such  a  case  is  to  file  the  other  points  down 
even  with  the  short  ones.  Thus  it  is  that  too  much  emphasis 
can  not  be  placed  on  the  admonition  to  be  careful  and  not  bear 
too  heavily  on  the  file.  Unevenness  may  be  detected  by  placing 
the  edge  of  a  carpenter's  rule  along  the  points. 

The  whole  secret  of  good  saw  fifing  is  to  keep  the  teeth  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  their  original  shape. 

Setting  Handsaws. — Unfike  the  larger  two-man  cross-cut  saws, 
most  handsaws  have  such  fine  teeth  and  are  used  in  so  much 
finer  work  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  set  them  with  any- 
thing except  a  regular  saw  set.  This  tool  is  made  in  such  a 
way  that  it  can  be  regulated  for  different  work.  Hardwoods 
require  the  least  set  in  a  saw,  seasoned  timber  requiring  not 
more  than  ^/g©  inch,  or  just  enough  to  allow  the  blade  to  follow 
through  without  binding.  Softwoods,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 
they  cut  faster  and  usually  are  more  or  less  spongy,  require 
greater  set,  depending  entirely  upon  their  firmness. 

Rip. — This  should  be  26  inches  long  with  a  straight  back  and 
should  have  five  and  one-half  or  six  teeth  to  the  inch.  It  costs 
from  SI. 50  to  $2.00. 

Keyhole. — This  is  used  in  cutting  circles  or  curves  and  may 
be  known  as  a  "  compass  "  saw.     For  general  use  it  should  have 
a     12-inch   blade.     Care   must   be 
taken  not  to  kink,  crack,  or  bend 
it  short,  since  the  blade  is  necessa- 
rily very    narrow,    and    therefore 
easily  damaged.     The  cost,  includ-    ^^^   io4.-Keyhole  or  "com- 
ing that  of  two  or  three  extra  blades,  pass ' '  saw. 
varies  from    twenty-five    to    forty 

cents.  The  uses  to  which  a  keyhole  saw  is  put  subject  it  to 
severe  strain  that  frequently  results    in  a  broken  or  otherwise 


122   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

damaged  blade,  and  this  of  course  demands  the  pm-chase  of  new 
blades.  Manufacturers  recognize  the  impracticability  of  using 
high-grade  steel  in  such  blades,  and  therefore  supply  them  in 
lower  grades  that  can  be  produced  at  much  less  expense  than 
better  grades  used  in  other  saws. 

Square.— See  pages  127  to  137,  inclusive. 

Brace.^This  should  be  of  the  ratchet  variety,  which  permits 
boring  holes  in  corners  or  at  other  points  where  complete  revolu- 
tions of  the  sweep  are  impossible.  It  consists  of  the  top  or 
knob  or  head,  the  sweep  (including  the  handle),  the  ratchet,  the 
chucks  which  hold  the  bit,  and  the  sleeve  which  screws  down 
over  and  forces  the  chucks  against  the  shoulders  of  the  bit. 
It  should  have  at  least  a  10-inch  sweep,  which  makes  the  crook 
that  carries  the  handle  5  inches  deep.  The  plain  finish  is  most 
satisfactory  for  general  station  work.  The  cost  varies  from 
$1.50,  plain  finish,  to  $5.00,  nickel  finish. 

Bits. — Auger. — These  consist  of  the  shank,  the  threads,  the 
knives,  the  hps,  and  the  screw.  The  shank  is  the  smooth,  round 
part  the  squared  head  of  which  fits  into  the  chucks  of  the  brace; 
the  threads,  or  twists,  are  the  spiral  wings  which  remove  the 
borings;  the  knives  cut  the  borings  loose;  the  Hps  cut  verti- 
cally ahead  of  the  knives;  and  the  screw  is  the  threaded  lower 
tip  that  feeds  the  knives  into  the  timber.  If  the  screw,  knives, 
and  lips  are  in  good  condition,  no  pressm-e  on  the  brace  will  be 
required  to  make  the  bit  cut. 

Bits  carrying  only  one  thread  or  wing  are  known  as  "  solid 
center  "  bits,  but  they  may  carry  two  knives  and  hps.  They 
cost  from  $1.25  to  $2.00,  while  those  with  double  threads  cost 
from  seventy-five  cents  to  $1.00  per  set,  depending  upon  the 
number  in  the  set,  usually  thirteen.  Most  manufacturers  stamp 
the  size  of  each  bit,  either  on  the  shank  or  on  the  squared 
head,  the  size  number  being  indicated  in  ^/i6-inch.  Thus  a 
bit  stamped  '^  14"  is  known  to  have  a  cutting  diameter  of  ^"^/la- 
or  J^-inch,  while  one  stamped  ''  5 "  cuts  a  ^/i6-inch 
hole. 

Car. — These  are  for  use  in  boring  heavy  timbers  and  may  be 
either  single  or  double  threaded.  They  seldom  are  equipped 
with  a  lip.  They  vary  from  ^/i6-  to  13^-inches  in  diameter  and 
cost  from  thirty-five  to  seventy-five  cents  each. 

Expansive. — These  have  no  twist,  but  are  fitted  with  a  mov- 
able knife  bearing  a  hp,  the  screw  usually  bearing  a  second  lip. 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK 


123 


They  vary  in  price  from  SI. 20  to  S2.00  each,  depending  upon 
the  size. 

Drill. — These  are  for  use  in  iron  or  in  hard,  close-grained 


Brace. 


Car  bits. 


Brace  drill. 


Gimlet  bit. 


Expansive  bit. 


Solid  center. 


Fig.  105.— Bits. 


Auger. 


wood,  and  are  especially  adapted  to  boring  timbers  that  may  be 
full  of  nails  or  other  metals  or  in  boring  holes  that  must  be 
started  near  or  through  iron.     Instead  of  having  knives  and 


124   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

iips  like  auger  bits  the  lower  ends  of  the  threads  are  cut  back  at 
an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees  or  less  and  are  gi'oiuid  fiat, 
the  sharp  edges  thus  produced  forming  the  pecuharly  constructed 
knives  necessarj^  in  boring  iron  or  hardwoods.  These  bits  are 
made  in  ^/i6-iiich  sizes  and  cost  from  ten  to  thirty-five  cents  each. 

Gimlet. — Gimlet  bits  are  shaped  about  the  same  as  drill  bits, 
except  that  the  knives  are  longer  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of 
the  bit  and  the  material  of  which  they  are  constructed  is  not 
as  durable  as  that  of  drill  bits.  They  are  for  use  in  boring  small 
holes  through  ver^-  soft  wood  and  cost  from  five  to  ten  cents  each. 

Planes. — Jack. — For  general  use  about  a  station  this  plane 
should  have  an  iron  frame  15  inches  long  and  wide  enough  to 
caxry  a  2-inch  bit.     Lateral  regulation  of  the  b!ade  or  bit  is 


Jack  plane.  Block  plane. 

Fig.  106. 


provided  for  by  means  of  a  thumb  lever  immediately  before 
and  at  the  ujjper  end  of  the  handle.  It  may  be  set  to  cut  deep  or 
shallow  by  revolving  a  circular  miUed  nut  which  raises  or  lowers 
it  through  the  medium  of  a  flanged  tumbler  located  parallel 
with  the  frame  beneath  the  upper  part  of  the  blade.  The  cost 
is  $1.00  or  $1.50. 

Block. — A  block  plane  is  especially  adapted  for  cutting  across 
the  grain  of  wood.  The  blade  is  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of 
a  small  horizontal  screw  wheel  located  immediately  beneath  the 
palm  piece.  Its  rim  works  in  a  Y-lever  fitted  at  the  forward  end 
with  a  vertical  elbow  joint  the  end  of  which  fits  into  grooves 
in  the  lower  side  of  the  blade.  To  release  the  blade  the  screw 
bolt  near  its  center  must  be  loosened  until  the  blade  can  be  slid 
along  to  where  the  hole  at  the  end  of  the  slot  coincides  with  the 
bolt.  This  plane  should  have  about  a  6-  or  7-inch  frame  and 
should  carry  an  inch  or  an  inch-and-a-half  blade.  The  cost 
varies  from  seventy-five  cents  to  $1.50. 

Chisels. — These  consist  of  the  wooden  handle,  the  handle 
socket,  the  shank,  the  blade,  and  the  bit.     The  last  has  a  single 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK  125 

bevel  at  the  rear  and  the  corners  are  square.  Ordinarily  a  set 
includes  eight  pieces,  but  for  all  common  work  about  a  station 
four  chisels  will  be  found  sufficient.     These  should  be  3^-,  %-, 


Fig.  107. — Chisels. 

1-  and  1  i^-inches  in  size.     The  four  cost  from  seventy-five  cents 
to  $1.50. 

Level-Plumb. — In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  inferior  instru- 
ments are  placed  on  the  market,  this  tool  should  be  tested  before 
it  is  purchased.  An  easy  yet  accurate  test  is  to  place  it  on  a 
smooth,  straight  plank  and  then  block  the  plank  up  till  the 
instrument  indicates  that  it  is  level.  This  will  be  when  the 
bubble  remains  stationary  immediately  under  the  mark  found 
on  the  glass  or  the  glass  guard.  If  the  bubble  assumes  the 
same  position  when  the  instrument  is  reversed  the  level  is  re- 
liable.  The  plumb  is  tested  in  a  similar  manner  except  that 
the  instrument  is  placed  in  a  vertical  position  against  an  object 
knowTi  to  be  plumb.     The  bubble  will  rest  immediately  under 


Fig.  108. — Level-plumb. 

the  plumb  mark  regardless  of  whether  the  face  or  the  back  is 
placed  against  the  object. 

The  best  instrument  for  rough  work  has  a  20-inch  iron  frame 
and  costs  from  seventy-five  cents  to  $1.50. 

Caliper. — A  caliper  is  for  use  in  securing  diameters,  and  the 
best  style  for  all-round  work  has  fiat  legs  that  may  be  pushed 
past  each  other  so  the  instrument  may  be  used  in  securing 
inside  as  well  as  outside  diameters.  The  cost  is  from  ten  to 
twenty-five  cents. 

Compass. — This  is  used  in  laying  off  circles  or  curves.  It 
should   be   of  the   8-inch   extension  variety,  which  inscribes  a 


126   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

41-iiich     circle     and     which  ■  costs     from     seventy-five      cents 
to  $1.25. 

Caliper  Rule. — ^This  should  be  of  the    fourfold    variety,  full 
brass  bound,  boxwood,    3^-inch  wide,  spaced   in   3^-,  Vio"  and 


Caliper,  Compass  or   dividei's. 

Fig.  109. 

^/i2-inches  with  drafting  scale.  The  cahper,  which  works  in 
the  end  of  one  joint,  wall  be  found  very  convenient  in  ascertain- 
ing outside  diameters  of  bolts,  pins,  etc.  The  cost  is  about 
fifty  cents. 

Monkey-Wrench. — This  tool  should  be  about  10  inches  long 
with  a  heavy  wrought  bar  and  head  and  a  deeply  milled  screw. 
It  costs  forty  or  fifty  cents. 

Claw-Hammer. — A  square-faced  hammer  is  sufficient  for  all 
rough  w^ork,  but  finer  work  requires  a  round  face  that  will  not 
bruise  the  wood  if  this  is  struck  either  intentionally  or  through 


Claw-hammer.  JMonkey- wrench. 

Fig.  110. 

accident.  The  hammer  shown  in  Fig.  110  may  also  be  used  as 
a  wrench,  but  too  great  leverage  must  not  be  attempted  or  the 
handle  will  be  cracked  or  broken.  It  weighs  about  eighteen 
ounces,  including  the  handle's  weight,  and  costs  from  fifty  cents 
to  $1.00.  A  claw-hatchet  should  weigh  thirty  or  thirty-two 
ounces  and  can  be  bought  for  from  forty  to  seventy-five  cents. 

Files. — Saw. — These  should  be  triangular  and  7  inches  long. 
They  cost  from  $1.00  to  $1.50  per  dozen. 

Wood. — A  14-inch  half-round  rasp  will  be  found  very  con- 
venient for  all  rough  work  and  costs  from  fifty  to  seventy-five 
cents. 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


127 


Grindstone. — This  is  almost  an  absolute  necessity  at  every 
station  where  edged  tools  are  used  and  is  usually  suppHed  upon 
requisition  if  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done  seems  to  justify 
such  an  expenditure.     It  should  have  a  take-down  tubular  iron 

frame  fitted  with  seat  and 
pedals  for  use  by  one  man.  It 
should  also  be  equipped  with 
baU  bearings,  water  cup,  and 
guard.  The  stone  should 
be  20  or  22  inches  in  diam- 
eter, of  Berea  grit  and  2  or 
23^  inches  thick.  It  weighs 
about  sixty  pounds,  making 
the    weight     of    the     entire 


Fig.  111. — Grindstone. 


Fig.  112. — Oilstone  mounted 
in  block. 


implement  approximately  eighty-five  pounds.  The  cost  is 
about  So.OO. 

Whetstone. — This  is  to  be  used  in  finishing  the  sharpening 
of  tools  and  should  be  of  the  tough,  fine  grit  known  as  an  oil 
stone.  It  should  weigh  about  one  pound  and  should  be  set 
in  a  block  fitted  with  a  cover.     The  cost  is  about  fifty  cents. 

The  Carpenter's  Square. — A  carpenter's  square  means  no 
more  to  a  man  not  versed  in  its  use  than  an  instrument  whereby 
he  may  lay  off  straight  Unes,  erect  perpendiculars  to  them,  and 
measure  distances  in  feet  and  inches.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these 
three  uses  of  the  square  are  the  simplest  to  which  it  can  be  put. 
Therefore,  in  order  to  assist  the  beginner  in  mastering  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  more  important  uses  of  the  square  a  few  of  these 
will  be  explained  here.  The  most  reliable  style  of  square  for 
general  use  is  that  knowTi  as  the  "  No.  100,"  which  costs  from 
$1.50  to  S2.00. 

Parts. — These  are  the  "  blade,"  or  the  2-fvOot  length,  2  inches 


128   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


wide;  the  "tongue,"  or  the  narrow  arm,  14,  16.  or  18  inches  in 
length;  the  "  face,"  or  the  upper  surface  of  the  square  as  the 
carpenter  holds  the  blade  in  his  left  hand  and  the  tongue  in  his 
right;  the  ''  back,"  or  the  reverse  side;  and  the  "  heel,"  or  the 
outer  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  blade  and  tongue. 

Graduations. — The  outer  edge  of  the  face  of  the  blade  is  gradu- 
ated in  Vi6-inches,  the  inner  edge  in  3^-inches,  the  outer  edge 
of  the  back  in  ^/12-inches,  and  the  inner  edge  of  the  back  in 
^/32-inches. 

Graduations  on  the  tongue  are  the  same  as  on  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  the  blade  except  that  on  some  styles  of  the  No.  100 
the  inner  edge  of  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  graduated  in  ^/lo, 
inches. 

Tables  and  Scales. — The  following  tables  and  scales  will  be 
found  in  some  form  on  any  No.  100  square  and  the  discussions 
covering  them  have  reference  only  to  that  style  of  square: 

Diagonal  Scale. — This  scale  is  a  square  inch  divided  diago- 
nally as  sho-^Ti  in  Fig.  113  and  is  provided  for  the  determination 
of  ^/loo-inches.     It  is  found  on  the  face  of  the  square  at  the 
junction  of  the  blade  and  the  tongue.     Primary  divisions  are 
made   by    intersections    of    the    diag- 
onal with  the  parallel  Unes,   such  in- 
tersections being   ^/lo-inch    apart    on 
the  latter.     The  diagonal   Une    start- 
ing at  the  lower   left-hand   corner   of 
the  rectangle  strikes  the  upper  edge  of 
this  figure  ^/lo-inch  to  the  right  of  the 
perpendicular   left-hand    edge   of    the 
rectangle.     In  other  words,  after  cross- 
FiG.  113. — Diagonal  scale,  ing     the  square  inch  it  has  departed 
^/lo-inch     from     the     perpendicular. 
Thus  the  first  interior  parallel  line  from  the  bottom  is  crossed 
at  a  point    equal    to    one-tenth    of    one-tenth,    or    ^/100-inch, 
from   the    perpendicular   hne.      The  sixth   parallel   Une    from 
the  bottom  is  crossed  at  a  point  equal  to  six-tenths  of  ^/lo-inch, 
or  ^/loo-inch  from  the  perpendicular. 

Assuming  that  the  carpenter  wishes  to  ascertain  a  measure  of 
^^/loo-inch,  he  places  one  leg  of  his  compass  on  the  intersection 
of  the  eighth  diagonal  hne  from  the  left  with  the  third  interior 
parallel  hne  from  the  bottom,  the  other  leg  of  the  compass  being 
placed  on  the  point  where  the  third  parallel  Hne  strikes  the  per- 


"■"■  II 

±  ±  ± 

CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


129 


pendicular  left  side  of  the  diagram.  Thus  the  compass  covers 
'/lo-inch  plus  -^/loo-inch  or  "-^/loo-inch. 

^ / xod-Inch  Scale. — Like  the  diagonal  scale,  this  scale  is  pro- 
vided as  a  means  of  ascertaining  a  measure  as  small  as  ^/loo- 
inch  and  is  found  on  certain  styles  of  the  No.  100.  It  consists 
merely  of  an  inch  Hne  divided  into  quarters,  these  into  fifths  and 
these  again  into  fifths,  and  is  found  usually  at  the  inner  side 
of  the  angle  on  the  back  of  the  blade.  Owing  to  the  necessarily 
small  fine  markings  and  the  possibiHty  of  their  being  obHterated 
by  rust  or  bruises,  this  scale  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  diagonal 
scale. 

Board  Scale. — On  the  back  of  the  blade  on  some  styles  of  the 
Xo.   100  will  be  found  a  series  of  figures  which  indicate  the 


II  II  M  II 


II  II 


II 


TTjTT 


13 


m 


iiiiiiliiiiiiiliiJiiiliiiiiiiiiJiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiL^ 


mi 


Fig.  114. — Board  Scale. 


number  of  board  feet  contained  in  a  1-inch  plank  of  given  length 
and  width.  This  table  includes  lengths  of  8,  9,  10,  11,  13,  14, 
and  15  feet,  which  are  found  in  the  column  under  the  12-inch 
measure  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade.  The  12-foot  length  is 
omitted  because  it  is  evident  at  once  that  the  contents  of  any 
inch  plank  12  inches  w4de  are  equal  to  the  plank's  length  in  feet. 
Other  inch  measures  along  the  same  edge  of  the  blade  serve  as 
plank  widths,  the  figures  in  the  columns  directly  beneath  them 
indicating  the  contents,  in  board  feet,  of  different-sized  planks. 
Thus  the  contents  of  a  plank  6  inches  wide  and  10  feet  long 
are  indicated  by  the  figures  found  where  the  10-foot  length  fine, 
under  12,  crosses  the  6-inch  '^'idth  column,  under  6,  the  number 
of  board  feet  in  such  a  plank  being  five.  If  the  plank  is  2  inches 
thick,  then  five  must  be  multiphed  by  two;  if  6  inches  thick, 
then  by  six,  etc. 


130        HANDBOOK    FOR   RA.NGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 


In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  large  per  cent  of  lumber  is  cut  16 
feet  long,  this  board  scale  would  be  much  more  convenient  if  it 
included  a  16-foot  length.  However,  the  number  of  board  feet 
in  a  plank  exceeding  15  feet  in  length  may  be  secured  by  doub- 
hng  the  contents  of  a  plank  half  as  long.  Thus  a  16-foot  plank 
9  inches  wide  contains  double  the  number  of  board  feet  found 
in  an  8-foot  plank  of  the  same  width,  or  twelve  board  feet. 

Rafter  Table. — On  one  style  of  the  No.  100  this  table  is  found 
along  the  center  of  the  back  of  the  tongue,  the  various  groups 
of  figures  representing  the  "  run  "  and  "  rise  "  and  the  length 
of  the  rafter  from  the  comb  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  plate.     Thus 

the  group        84.85  indicates  a  run  of  60  feet,  or  inches,  a  rise  of 

the  same  and  a  rafter  length  of  84.85  feet,  or  inches.  At  first 
glance  it  may  appear  to  the  inexperienced  that  since  only  four- 
teen groups  are  given  (on  most 
squares)  these  provide  only  for 
fourteen  different  rafter  lengths. 
However,  close  observation  of  the 
first  thirteen  groups,  reading  tow- 
ard the  right  from  the  end  of 
the  tongue,  will  reveal  the  fact 
that  they  are  arranged  in  in- 
creasing and  finite  arithmetical 
progressions.  Two  of  these  pro- 
gressions represent  run  and  rise, 
and,  being  equal,  are  therefore  apphcable  only  to  rafters 
which  are  to  be  cut  for  a  half-pitch  roof,  which,  by  the 
way,  is  the  most  widely  used  pitch  for  roofs.  The  first  term 
is  24,  the  constant  difference  is  3,  and  the  last  term  is  60. 
The  third  progression,  composed  of  the  numbers  found  to 
the  right  and  midway  between  the  numbers  representing 
run  and  rise,  indicates  the  length  of  rafters  which  are  to 
cover  the  length  of  run  and  rise  shown.  The  first  term  is 
33.95,  the  constant  difference  is  approximately  4.24  and  the 
last  term  is  84.85.  These  numbers  may  be  used  to  indicate 
inches,  feet,  yards,  rods,  or  any  other  units  of  length. 

Other  lengths  than  those  given  may  be  determined  by  using 
this  table  as  a  basis  of  computations  and  dividing  or  multiplying 
a  group  according  to  whether  the  proposed  rafter  is  to  be  longer 
or  shorter  than  that  indicated  in  the  group.     Thus,  given  a  run 


II  II  II  II 

II   II 

II    II 

8 
6 

7 

51  7212 
51 

5 

1    II 

UN 

INI 

III! 

Fig.  ] 

L15.— r 

lafter  t 

able. 

CONSTRUCTION   WORK  131 

and  rise  of  6  feet,  to  determine  the  rafter  length:  The  first  group 

24  33  95 

may  be  used  to  best  advantage;     -r  =  4;    — -^ —  =  8.49,   the 

length  required. 

Or,  given  a  run  and  rise  of  90,  to  find  the  rafter  length :  Exam- 
ination of  the  various  groups  shows  the  eighth  to  be  most  con- 
on 
venient;    4=  =  2;    2X63.64  =  127.28,  the  length  required.     It 

will  be  seen  from  this  that  instead  of  covering  only  thirteen  dif- 
ferent rafter  lengths  these  thirteen  groups  cover  the  subject  of 
rafter  lengths  for  equal  run  and  rise  in  a  very  complete  manner. 

IS 

The  fourteenth  group,  30,  applies  to  other  pitches.  Assum- 
ing 24  as  run  and  18  as  rise,  the  roof  wiU  be  ^s-pitch,  and,  like 
the  half-pitch,  is  a  favorite  among  builders.  Reversing  the  rela- 
tions makes  a  rise  of  24  and  a  run  of  18,  or  a  %-pitch,  which 
is  seldom  used. 

Other  rafter  lengths  covering  run  and  rise  of  the  same  rela- 
tive proportions  may  be  obtained  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
employed  and  previously  described  in  the  matter  of  rafters  to 
be  cut  for  half-pitch  roofs. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  use  of  this  table  is  not  con- 
fined exclusively  to  rafter  and  brace  lengths.  It  may  be  appHed 
with  equal  faciUty  to  land  measurements  and  to  other  work 
involving  hypotenuses. 

Pitch  Table. — Some  styles  of  the  No.  100  bear  a  table  on  the 
back  of  the  blade  which  shows  the  pitch  of  rafters  or  braces 
after  the  run  and  rise  have  been  determined. 

Pitch  is  determined  by  dividing  the  rise  by  twice  the  run. 

Formula: =  P. 

2  Run 

For  example:  Given  a  10-foot  rise  and  a  15-foot  run,  to  deter- 
mine   the    pitch.       The    solution    follows: =  —  pitch. 

2  X  15         3 

Ordinarily  12  is  assumed  as  the  run  and  other  numbers  as  the 
rise,  thus:  12—4,  12-6,  12-8,  etc.,  these  combinations  appearing 
in  the  first  double  column  of  the  table  shown  in  Fig.  116.     Pitch 


132   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


may  be  taken  at  each  inch  mark  along  the  outer  edge  of  the 
blade. 

Thus,  in  a  quarter-pitch  roof  having  a  run  of  4  feet,  the  rafter 
length  is  found  in  the  quarter-pitch  Hne  under  4,  and  is  4  feet, 
5'vi2  inches.  In  a  haK-pitch  roof  (in  which  the  run  and  rise  are 
always  equal)  if  the  run  is  3  feet,  then  the  rafter  length  appears 
in  the  half -pitch  Une  under  3,  and  is  4  feet,  2^/i2  inches.  No 
provision  is  made  for  lookout  lengths. 

Rise  for  different  pitches  may  be  determined  by  simple  opera- 
tions in  proportion.     For  example:     In  a  sixth-pitch  roof  the 


miii{iiiii{imi|ii|iim|ii|iiiimimmmiii| 

^    '    'll  pWh'2         '3         '4 


-         op  -^ 


ss 


'NT  'I'lT 
7 

T|'l" 

8 

2|0  • 

»    •     •  2|5  • 

•  •  « 

5 

6 

III    III 

Fig.  116.— Pitch  table. 


Fig.  117. — Octagon  rule. 


rise  must  be  to  the  run  as  4  is  to    12    (first  line). 

In  a  third-pitch  roof  it  must  be  to  the  run  as  8  is 

to  12  (thu-d  Une). 

Octagon  Rule. — This  is  found  along  the  center 
of  the  face  of  the  tongue  and  is  supphed  as  a  means  for  laying 
off  gauge-lines  on  a  square  timber  that  is  to  be  dressed  down 
to  an  octagon.  Assuming  that  such  a  timber  is  12  inches  square, 
lines  are  drawn  across  the  ends  of  the  timber  exactly  through 
the  center  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so  that  each  end  is 
marked  off  into  four  6-inch  squares.  The  carpenter  then  sets 
off  on  either  side  of  each  center  Une,  where  it  strikes  the  edge  of 
the  timber,  a  number  of  spaces  on  the  octagon  rule  equal  to  the 
timber's  width  in  inches,  in  this  case  12.  The  points  thus  de- 
termined indicate  the  proper  place  from  which  to  stretch  the 
chalk-  or  gauge-Une.  If  the  timber  is  16  inches  square  then 
sixteen  spaces  of  the  octagon  rule  are  used. 

Other  Uses. — To  Lay  off  Rafters. — Assuming  that  a  run  is  12 
feet  and  a  rise  8  feet  and  that  the  rafter  length  has  been  deter- 
mined, let  the  12-inch  mark  on  the  back  of  the  blade  represent 
the  run  and  the  8-inch  mark  on  the  tongue  the  rise.  As  the 
carpenter  stands  on  the  proposed  long  side  of  the  rafter  hold- 
ing the  blade  in  his  left  hand  and  the  tongue  in  his  right,  he 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  133 

places  the  12-incli  mark  at  the  point  decided  upon  for  the  long 
side  or  upper  edge  of  the  rafter  foot.  The  8-inch  mark  is  then 
placed  directly  over  the  long  edge  of  the  timber  and  the  latter 
is  marked  along  the  edge  of  the  blade,  this  Une  indicating  the 
proper  angle  at  which  the  foot  is  to  be  cut.  In  laying  off  the 
upper  angle  the  8-inch  mark  is  placed  immediately  over  the 
point  decided  upon  as  the  upper  end  of  the  rafter.  The  12- 
inch  mark  on  the  blade  is  then  brought  out  flush  with  the  upper 
edge  of  the  rafter  and  the  timber  is  marked  along  the  edge  of  the 
tongue.  This  mark  indicates  the  angle  at  which  the  upper  end 
of  the  rafter  is  to  be  cut. 

A  second  method  of  laying  off  rafters  and  at  the  same  time 
marking  their  length  follows:  Assuming  that  the  run  is  12  feet 
and  the  rise  8  feet,  place  the  square  on  the  timber  so  the  12-inch 
mark  on  the  blade  and  the  8-inch  mark  on  the  tongue  fall  di- 


FiG.  118. — Method  of  applying  square  in  obtaining  length  of  rafter. 

rectly  over  the  proposed  long  side  of  the  rafter.  A  mark  along 
the  edge  of  the  blade  indicates  where  the  timber  must  be  cut 
to  form  the  rafter  foot.  The  12-inch  mark  is  then  moved  along 
the  timber  to  where  the  8-inch  mark  first  rested,  and  this  opera- 
tion is  repeated  as  often  as  is  necessary  in  running  the  length 
of  the  rafter,  in  this  case  twelve  times.  A  mark  made  along  the 
edge  of  the  tongue  at  the  last  appUcation  of  the  square  to  the 
timber  will  indicate  the  angle  at  which  the  upper  end  of  the 
rafter  is  to  be  cut.  The  work  of  laying  off  the  rafter  length 
in  this  particular  case  may  be  shortened  by  using  the  figures 
24  and  16  on  the  blade  and  tongue,  respectively,  thus  requiring 
only  six  apphcations  of  the  square  to  the  timber.  The  one  rule 
to  remember  in  laying  off  rafters  in  this  manner  is  to  find  first 
how  many  times  the  distance  used  as  run  on  the  square  is  con- 
tained in  the  total  run  of  the  roof,  and  then  to  apply  the  square 
this  number  of  times  to  the  timber.     It  is  hardly  necessary 


134       HANDBOOK    FOR    RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

to  say  that  if  the  figures  at  first  determined  upon  as  represent- 
ing run  and  rise  on  the  square  are  later  changed,  they  must  be 
kept  relatively  the  same  as  the  originals. 

To  Lay  Off  a  Lookout. — This  is  merely  an  extension  of  the 
rafter  and  is  intended  to  project  over  and  protect  the  plate. 


Length  of  Timber  over  all  - 


Length  of  Rafter  as  Cut 


Length  of 

■  LongSide-of-Rafter- 

as  Laid  Off 


Fig.  119. — To  cut  rafter  lookouts. 


The  rafter  should  be  cut  the  same  as  any  other  except  that 
instead  of  cutting  clear  through  the  timber  it  is  cut  from  the 
under  side  only  to  the  intersection  of  the  fines  marking  the 
angle  and  the  under  side  of  the  lookout.  Thus,  if  the  lookout 
is  to  be  2  inches  thick  the  angle  should  be  drawn  from  a  point 
exactly  2  inches  in  from  the  long  edge.  Likewise,  the  point 
which  marks  the  upper  end  of  the  rafter  must  be  set  in  2  inches 
from  the  long  edge  and  the  angle  drawn  through  it.  (See  Fig.  119.) 
To  Lay  Off  Stair  Strings. — The  run,  or  the  horizontal  distance 
from  the  foot  to  a  point  directly  beneath  the  head  of  the  stairs, 


Fig.  120. — Stair  string. 


is  first  obtained.  (See  Fig.  120.)  After  the  jise  of  each  step 
has  been  decided  upon,  the  number  of  steps  required  for  the 
entire  string  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  rise  by  the  rise 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK 


135 


of  one  step.  Tread  of  each  step  is  obtained  by  dividing  the 
run  of  the  string  by  the  number  of  steps.  The  square  is  used 
the  same  as  in  laying  off  rafters  or  braces. 

To  Lay  Off  Octagons  When  No  Octagon  Rule  Is  Available. — Lay 
the  square  on  the  face  of  the  timber,  as  shown  in  Fig,  121,  with 
the  heel  flush  with  one  edge  of  the  face  and  the  outer  corner  of  the 


Fig.  121. — Octagon  rule. 

blade  flush  wdth  the  opposite  edge.  Mark  the  timber  where  the 
figures  7  and  17  fall  and  repeat  this  operation  at  the  other  end 
of  the  timber.  Gauge-hnes  drawn  between  respective  points 
thus  marked  near  the  ends  of  the  timber  will  indicate  the  depth 
to  which  the  timber  must  be  dressed,  the  rule  holding  good  on 
any  size  timber  and  being  sufficiently  accurate  for  any  rough 
work.  A  2-foot  rule  may  be  used  in  a  similar  manner  if  no 
square  is  available. 

To  Obtain  the  Center  of  a  Circle. — Apply  the  square  to  the  circle 


\ 

~ 

\ 

\    / 

\    / 

V 

/  \ 

/        \ 

/         \ 

/             \    1 

/ 

s 

^^ 

Fig.  122. — To  obtain 
the  center  of  a  circle. 


Fig.  123. 


-To  obtain  the  center  of 
rectangle. 


twice  as  shown  in  Fig.  122.  The  circumference  is  marked  where 
the  blade  and  tongue  cross  it  and  the  pairs  of  marks  are  then 
connected  as  shown  in  the  figure.     The  intersection  of  the  con- 


136   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

necting  lines  indicates  the  center.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  figures  used  are  the  same  in  both  appKcations  of  the 
square  to  the  circle. 

To  Obtain  the  Center  of  a  Rectangle. — Draw  connecting  Unes 
between  diagonally  opposite  comers  as  shown  in  Fig.  123.  The 
point  of  intersection  between  the  two  Unes  indicates  the  center 
of  the  rectangle. 

To  Erect  a  Perpendicular  without  a  Square. — It  not  infre- 
quently happens  that  an  odd  job  of  carpenter  work  about  a 
station  requires  the  erection  of  a  perpendicular  when  no  square 
is  available.  This  may  be  done  by  means  of  a  compass  or  a 
string  and  pencil  as  shown  in  Fig.  124,  wherein  the  point  3  indi- 
cates the  place  at  which  the  perpendicular  is  to  be  erected. 


Fig.  124. — To  erect  a  perpendicular  without  a  square. 

With  3  as  a  center  the  arcs  4-5  and  6-7  are  laid  off,  being,  of 
course,  arcs  of  the  same  circle.  Their  points  of  intersection  with 
the  line  1-2  are  used  as  centers  from  which  to  lay  off  4-5'  and 
6-7'.  The  Une  8-9  drawn  through  the  points  of  intersection  of 
these  two  arcs  is  perpendicular  to  the  Une  1-2. 

To  Bisect  an  Angle  without  a  Square. — If  this  must  be  done 
and  no  square  is  at  hand,  the  compass  or  string  and  pencil  must 
be  used  again.  Assuming  that  the  angle  2  in  Fig.  125  is  to  be 
bisected,  it  is  used  as  a  center  from  which  to  lay  off  the  arc 
4-5,  and  the  points  of  intersection  of  this  arc  with  the  Unes 
1-2  and  3-2  are  used  as  centers  from  which  to  lay  off  arcs  8-9 
and  6-7.  The  Une  2-10,  passing  through  the  intersection  of 
arcs  6-7  and  8-9,  bisects  the  angle  2. 

Improvised  Square. — A  very  satisfactory  substitute  for  a 
square  is  iUustrated  in  Fig.  126.  Its  construction,  however, 
calls  for  the  use  of  a  foot-rule,  yardstick,  or  other  similar  instru- 


CONSTRUCTION   WORK  137 

ment  whereby  lengths  may  be  laid  off.  Unless  such  an  instru- 
ment is  available  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  fasten  the  two 
parts  together  exactly  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  if  the 
substitute  is  to  be  rehable  it  is  very  necessary  that  this  point 
of  construction  be  carefully  observed. 

The  principle  involved  in  securing  perfect  right  angles  between 
the  two  parts  is  based  on  the  well-known  47th  problem  of  Euchd. 


Fig.  125. — To  bisect  an  Fig.  126. — Substitute  for  level- 

angle  without  a  square.  plumb. 

Thus,  after  a  certain  length,  say  6  inches,  has  been  laid  off  on 
each  arm  of  the  instrument,  the  measurements  being  taken  of 
course  from  the  same  point,  the  square  of  the  hypotenuse  of  the 
triangle  formed  must  equal  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  lengths 
of  the  two  sides.  An  easier  method  is  to  lay  off  6  inches  on  one 
arm  and  8  on  the  other,  after  which  the  two  parts  are  so  arranged 
that  the  hypotenuse  is  10  inches.  This  instrument  may  also  be 
used  as  a  level-plumb  if  a  plumb-bob  is  attached  as  shown. 

SHEARS 

These  are  used  in  the  erection  of  long,  heavy  timbers  when 
the  draft  is  to  be  from  a  point  at  the  ground.  Their  function 
is  to  raise  the  direction  of  draft,  which  would  otherwise  be 
almostparallel  with  the  long  dimension  of  the  timber  to  be  erected. 
They  should  be  half  as  long  as  the  timber  to  be  erected  and  of 
a  diameter  that  will  prevent  buckling  under  endwise  strain. 
They  are  first  laid  with  the  upper  ends  crossed  on  the  timber, 
the  lower  ends  being  placed  one  on  either  side  of  the  timber, 
and  at  a  distance  from  it  sufficient  to  present  a  suitable  base 
as  the  timber  is  raised.  Shallow  holes  are  dug  as  receptacles 
for  the  lower  ends  and  are  supplied  for  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing the  shears  from  "  kicking  out  "  at  the  bottom  when  the 


138   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

draft  is  applied.  The  upper  ends  are  fastened  securely  together 
at  a  point  about  12  inches  down.  At  or  near  the  upper  end, 
of  the  timber  a  cable  is  attached  and  then  brought  down  to 
where  the  shears  cross  each  other.  Here  it  is  securely  fastened 
to  the  shears  at  a  point  on  the  cable  far  enough  from  the  end 
of  the  timber  to  allow  the  shears  to  rise  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees  before  any  draft  is  applied  to  the  timber.  Tackle 
ropes  will  not  work  through  the  cross  of  the  shears  and  the 


Fig.  127. — Erection  of  timber  with  shears. 


cable  must  therefore  be  supplied  with  an  eye  for  the  reception 
of  the  hook  in  the  block.  A  back  guy  and  two  side  guys  are 
then  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the  timber,  the  back  guy 
being  snubbed  about  a  post  and  paid  out  as  the  timber  is  raised, 
but  the  side  guys  being  fastened  securely  to  posts  set  in  Hne 
with  the  foot  of  the  timber  and  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of 
draft.  Posts  for  the  side  guys  must  be  set  at  a  distance  from 
the  foot  of  the  timber  equal  to  the  distance  from  the  foot  to 
where  the  guys  are  fastened  to  the  timber.  The  tackle  is  taken 
in  bv  means  of  a  crab. 


GENERAL  FIELD   WORK 

RIDING 

Since  good  saddle  animals  cost  from  $80.00  to  $125.00  pci 
head,  it  is  quite  to  the  advantage  of  an  inexperienced  man  to 
know  what  constitutes  proper  and  improper  riding. 

One  important  fact  he  should  bear  in  mind  is  that  it  never 
pays,  in  any  circumstance,  to  purchase  vicious,  diseased,  crip- 
pled, partially  bhnd,  or  otherwise  defective  animals.  Since  a 
large  part  of  his  time  must  be  spent  in  the  saddle  he  will  find 
that  even  the  best  horses  are  none  too  satisfactory,  and  the  use 
of  inferior  animals  will  only  tend  to  make  his  work  more  un- 
pleasant. 

SADDLING 

Adjusting  the  Blanket. — Without  doubt,  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon causes  of  a  saddle  animal's  sore  back  is  an  improperly  con- 
structed or  badly  adjusted  saddle  blanket.  The  first  thing  to 
be  done  in  securing  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  blanket  is  to 
see  that  both  the  top  and  under  sides  are  free  from  burrs,  twigs, 
leaves,  and  other  similar  articles  that  may  abrade  the  animal's 
back  or  cause  sitfasts  or  gaUs.  (See  page  255.)  After  this  precau- 
tion has  been  observed,  the  blanket  should  be  placed  so  it  will 
fit  squarely  and  evenly  under  the  saddle,  allowing  as  nearly  as 
possible  an  equal  pressure  along  either  side  of  the  animal's  back- 
bone dowTiward  to  a  distance  somewhat  below  the  edge  of  the 
saddle  bars  or  even  to  the  lower  edges  of  the  skirts.  If  the 
blanket  is  one  that  must  be  folded  several  times  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  edges  of  the  folds  do  not  come  where  great 
pressure  of  the  saddle  wiU  occur.  These  folds  should  be  made 
to  fall  below  or  to  the  front  or  rear  of  the  saddle  skirts.  Heavily 
ribbed  blankets  require  special  attention  in  being  so  placed  as 
to  bring  the  ribs  parallel  with  the  skirts.  Any  blanket  that  has 
been  wet  and  then  allowed  to  dry  quickly  and  become  stiff  should 
be  worked  phant  and  scraped  clean  of  aU  incrustations  of  dirt 
and  sweat. 

Placing  the  Saddle. — After  the  blanket  has  been  properly 
adjusted,  seize  the  saddle  horn  or  fork  with  the  right  hand,  and 

139 


140   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

the  lower  front  corner  of  the  near  skirt  with  the  left,  then  swing 
the  saddle  upward  over  the  animal's  back  to  a  height  that  will 
permit  it  to  be  lowered  squarely  on  the  blanket.  This  opera- 
tion is  performed  from  the  near  side  of  the  animal.  The  saddle 
should  not  be  lowered  to  the  blanket  with  violence  nor  should 
it  be  swung  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the  off  stirrup  or  the 
loose  end  of  the  cinch  to  strike  the  animal  a  severe  blow  on  the 
leg  or  side.  If  saddling  is  done  in  this  manner,  any  horse  will 
soon  acquire  the  habit  of  shying  out  from  under  the  saddle  as 
it  descends.  If  the  saddle  has  been  properly  placed,  the  off 
skirt  and  stirrup  and  the  cinch  will  fall  into  their  proper  posi- 
tions, and  the  saddle  is  then  ready  to  be  cinched. 

Tightening  the  Cinch. — The  front  cinch  of  a  double-rigged 
saddle  is  fastened  first.  To  do  this,  the  left  hand  is  thrust  be- 
neath the  animal's  body,  the  cinch  is  secured  and  brought  up  to 
the  near  side,  and  the  latigo  is  then  threaded  through  the  cinch 
ring  from  the  inner  side  with  the  right  hand.  Afterward,  the 
latigo  is  passed  upward  and  through  the  ring  in  the  rig  from  the 
outer  side,  downward  again  through  the  cinch  ring  from  the  inner 
side,  then  upward  and  tied  into  the  rig,  as  shown  in  Fig.  228. 
If  the  latigo  is  made  to  buckle,  the  buckle-tongue  is  thrust 
through  it,  and  the  loose  end  is  then  disposed  of  by  hanging  it 
in  the  loop  provided  for  that  purpose,  just  under  the  near  side 
of  the  fork.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  all  slack  in  the 
latigo  between  the  rig  and  the  cinch  has  been  taken  up,  or  the 
buckle-tongue  may  work  loose  and  allow  the  saddle  to  slip. 

After  the  front  cinch  has  been  fastened  the  rear  cinch  is 
treated  in  a  similar  manner  except  that  it  is  not  drawn  as  tightly. 
If  a  cinch  fastener  (see  Fig.  11)  is  used,  the  latigo  must  be 
drawn  tightly  enough  to  force  the  lower  end  of  the  fastener 
lever  outward  against  the  Up  of  the  loop.  Unless  this  is  done 
the  cinch  ring  may  shp  from  the  loop  and  thus  leave  the  saddle 
without  any  fastening  whatever. 

Neither  cinch  of  a  double  rig  should  be  fastened  too  loosely. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  front  cinch  may  be  given  an  extra  tighten- 
ing after  the  animal  has  been  ridden  300  or  400  yards.  By  that 
time  the  blanket  is  firmly  settled  and  the  animal,  if  he  is  a 
"  sweller,"  has  resumed  his  normal  girth,  so  the  saddle  may  be 
fastened  for  a  long  ride.  The  cinch  should  not  be  drawn  up 
close  against  the  animal's  elbow  joints  but  should  rest  to  the 
rear  of  them  at  a  distance  of  from  1  to  2  inches. 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  141 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  draw  the  rear  cinch  very  tight. 
When  this  is  done  the  animal  suffers  more  or  less  inconvenience 
and  discomfort  in  breathing  and  will  in  most  instances  object 
strenuously  to  such  treatment.  This  cinch  should  be  drawn 
snugly  against  the  body,  however,  and  not  left  loose  enough  to 
rub  against  the  ends  of  the  hair  and  produce  a  tickling  sensation. 

Removing  the  Saddle. — The  rear  cinch  is  loosened  first  and  the 
latigo  end  is  either  thrown  upward  across  the  saddle  or  else  hung 
in  the  loop  provided  for  it.  When  this  has  been  done  the  front 
cinch  is  loosened  and  the  latigo  is  disposed  of  in  a  similar  manner. 
This  disposition  of  the  latigoes  obviates  the  possibihty  of  their 
becoming  entangled  in  brush  or  about  the  horseman's  legs  as 
he  moves  away  from  the  horse. 

In  removing  the  saddle  the  horn  or  fork  is  seized  with  the 
right  hand  and  the  blanket  is  caught  by  the  left.  By  thus 
securing  the  blanket  it  is  kept  from  the  ground,  where  it  might 
accumulate  dirt  or  burrs.  WTien  a  firm  hold  has  been  secured 
at  the  fork  the  saddle  is  dragged  from  the  animal's  back  by 
puUing  it  toward  the  near  side.  It  is  then  laid  on  its  side  or 
stood  on  end,  fork  dowTiward.  If  thro\Mi  flat  down  on  the 
skirts  the  latter  soon  lose  their  shape  and  curl  in  or  out  or  other- 
wise become  twisted  and  wTinkled.  Moreover,  the  skirt  linings 
may  pick  up  twigs  or  buiTS  or  become  damp  or  dusty.  The 
blanket  should  be  throwTi,  sweaty  side  downward,  across  the 
saddle.  Both  blanket  and  saddle  should  be  placed  in  the  shade 
during  hot,  dry  weather. 

Mounting. — This  operation  should  always  be  conducted  from 
the  near  side  and  only  from  the  off  side  when  circumstances 
absolutely  demand  it.  Nothing  indicates  a  man's  inexperience 
with  horses  or  emphasizes  it  more  strongly  than  his  attempt  to 
mount  from  the  off  side,  which  usually  results  in  disaster  when 
western  horses  are  to  be  ridden.  They  are  seldom  trained  to 
expect  such  handling,  and  are  naturally  more  or  less  puzzled 
or  surprised  when  the  inexperienced  man  introduces  the  novelty. 
Practically  all  of  the  saddle  animals  found  on  the  farms  of  the 
East  and  South,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  North,  may  be  mounted 
with  equal  facility  from  either  side,  but  they  are  so  trained  merely 
as  a  matter  of  convenience  and  the  rule  should  never  be  assumed 
as  a  general  one.  It  is  well  to  learn  to  mount  from  eitTier  side 
in  order  to  be  prepared  for  emergencies,  but  it  is  never  advisable 
to  try  experiments  with  strange  horses. 


142   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Various  styles  of  mounting  prevail  in  different  localities,  and 
each  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages  according  to  the 
animal  to  be  ridden  and  to  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been 
trained  or  ''  broken," 

Cheeking. — This  method  is  common  to  all  parts  of  the  West  and 
is  the  safest  method  by  which  a  fractious  or  viciously  inclined 
animal  may  be  mounted.  The  horseman  secures  a  firm  grip 
of  the  near  bridle  cheek  with  his  left  hand  and  with  the  right 
then  turns  the  near  stirrup  forward  until  he  can  insert  his  left 
foot  in  it  as  he  stands  facing  almost  rearward.  When  his  left 
foot  has  been  firmly  placed  in  the  stuTup  he  releases  the  latter 
and  then  grasps  the  reins  and  saddle  horn  with  the  same  hand; 
in  some  cases  the  reins  are  held  with  the  bridle  cheek  in  the 
left  hand.  He  hoists  himseK  into  the  saddle  by  a  muscular 
effort  of  the  right  arm  and  left  leg.  If  the  animal  attempts  to 
pitch  while  it  is  being  mounted  it  is  prevented  from  doing  so 
by  the  reins  held  at  the  saddle  horn,  or  drawn  in  with  the  left 
hand.  These  should  be  drawn  in  short  enough  to  hold  the 
animal's  head  well  up.  No  horse  can  pitch  until  he  can  lower 
his  head. 

If  it  makes  a  sudden  lunge  the  grip  on  the  bridle  cheek  serves 
automatically  to  hold  the  horseman  near  the  animal  and  pull 
it  under  him  rather  than  allow  it  to  move  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. This  method  of  mounting  also  keeps  the  horseman  weU 
to  the  front  and  out  of  the  danger  zone  if  the  animal  kicks. 
If  it  is  impatient  and  attempts  to  start  unmounted,  it  is  forced 
to  travel  in  a  circle  about  the  horseman,  and  the  latter  is  thus 
materially  assisted  in  his  efforts  to  mount. 

Another  method  of  mounting  common  to  the  West  is  to  seize 
the  mane  with  the  left  hand.  Except  for  this  difference  the 
method  is  the  same  as  cheeking. 

Vaulting.— This  method  of  mounting  is  used  chiefly  on  moving 
animals.  The  rider  secures  a  firm  grip  of  the  saddle  horn  with 
one  or  both  hands,  uses  his  elbows  as  a  fulcrum  against  the 
horse's  side  or  the  side  of  the  saddle,  and  thus  assists  himself  in 
springing  high  enough  to  pass  his  right  leg  over  the  cantle  and 
to  alight  squarely  in  the  saddle  seat. 

This  is  the  quickest  method  of  mounting  that  can  be  used, 
and  it  may  be  employed  to  great  advantage  when  a  swiftly 
moving  animal  is  to  be  mounted.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  grip 
at  the  horn  is  secui-e.  the  momentum  of  the  horse  will  almost 


GENERAL  FIELD    WORK  143 

throw  the  horseman  into  his  seat  if  he  exerts  only  the  sUghtest 
effort  in  springing  upward  from  the  ground.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  not  to  spring  too  forcibly  or  the  horseman  will 
invariably  throw  himseK  completely  over  the  horse.  Such  an 
accident  may  appear  quite  improbable,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  novice  will  throw  himself  too  far  rather  than  not  far  enough, 
and  unless  the  saddle  is  well  cinched  and  his  grip  at  the  horn 
is  very  secure  he  may  experience  a  serious  fall. 

"  Climbing  On." — Throughout  the  East,  in  some  portions  of 
the  South,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  North  and  central  West,  a 
very  common  method  of  mounting  is  to  insert  the  left  foot  in 
the  proper  stirrup,  seize  the  reins  and  the  saddle  horn  with  the 
left  hand  and  the  cantle  with  the  right,  and  then  "  cUmb  on  " 
a  horse.  This  method  of  mounting  is  perfectly  safe  when  a  well- 
trained  animal  is  to  be  ridden,  but  should  never  be  attempted 
on  a  spirited  or  haK-trained  horse. 

Position. — The  inexperienced  rider  invariably  assumes  an  un- 
necessarily stiff  and  unnatural  position  in  the  saddle,  and  this 
results  in  his  extreme  lameness  for  several  days.  Moreover,  such 
a  method  of  riding,  by  reason  of  the  resultant  unyielding  seat, 
has  a  tendency  to  tire  a  horse  and  may  even  have  serious  effects 
upon  one  so  ridden.  The  only  muscles  in  the  rider's  body  that 
must  be  held  in  a  reasonably  prolonged  degree  of  intensity  are 
those  which  enable  him  to  maintain  a  thigh  grip  against  the 
sides  of  the  saddles.  This  grip  is  necessary  in  order  to  prevent 
him  from  being  unseated  in  case  his  mount  shies  suddenly  or 
unexpectedly,  or  whirls  or  makes  a  sudden  swerve  from  the  gen- 
eral direction  of  travel.  It  also  assists  him  in  maintaining  his 
seat  at  other  times  and  prevents,  to  a  great  extent,  the  unpleasant 
sensation  of  "  bouncing  "  when  a  horse  travels  otherwise  than  at 
a  walk.  The  action  of  this  set  of  muscles  soon  becomes  invol- 
untary and  requires  no  attention  on  the  part  of  the  rider.  ^ 

The  English  style  of  riding,  knowTi  as  "  posting,"  where  the 
rider  raises  his  body  from  the  saddle  at  regular  intervals  through- 
out an  animal's  progress,  is  to  be  avoided.  It  is  tiresome  to  the 
rider,  injurious  to  his  mount,  and  can  not  be  justified  by  any 


1  Frequent  instances  have  occurred  where  greatly  fatigued  or  sleep- 
worn  cavalrymen,  and  others  whose  duties  require  continual  riding, 
have  been  known  to  fall  sound  asleep  and  in  this  condition  maintain 
their  seats  throughout  miles  of  travel. 


144   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

rule  of  practice  or  elegance.  Aside  from  these  facts,  it  is  even 
dangerous  in  fast  riding  over  rough  country  or  in  brush. 

Another  common  practice  among  a  certain  class  of  careless 
riders  is  to  "  ride  the  stirrups,"  i.e.,  stand  in  them  in  such  a 
way  as  to  remove  the  weight  of  the  body  from  the  saddle  seat. 
It  is  never  employed  by  the  best  riders,  except  occasionally  in 
very  rough  traveUng,  such  as  fast  downhill  trotting  or  over  un- 
even ground  where  an  animal  may  be  expected  to  fall  and  in 
doing  so  compel  instant  dismounting. 

Another  practice  to  be  avoided  is  "  riding  one  stirrup."  In 
doing  this  the  rider  removes  one  foot  from  the  stirrup,  raises 
the  corresponding  thigh  into  the  saddle  seat,  and  rests  prac- 
tically all  of  the  weight  of  his  body  on  the  foot  in  the  other 
stirrup.  On  long,  hard  rides  an  occasional  change  to  this  posi- 
tion for  short  intervals  is  restful  to  both  the  rider  and  his  mount, 
but  when  maintained  for  extended  periods  it  usually  results  in 
injuries  to  the  animal's  back.  This  is  due,  of  course,  to  unequal 
pressure  of  the  saddle.  For  the  same  reason  the  practice  of 
crooking  one  knee  about  the  saddle  horn  and  riding  sidewise 
for  long  intervals  is  likewise  bad. 

The  easiest  position,  and  one  that  produces  a  minimum  of 
discomfort  for  both  horse  and  rider,  is  a  firm  thigh  grip  and  a 
reasonably  loose  seat,  the  backbone  kept  firmly  upright  but 
not  rigid.  If  the  animal  is  inclined  to  buck  or  pitch  the  thigh 
grip  is  especially  advantageous.  In  such  a  case  the  rider  should 
lean  well  back  of  the  perpendicular  in  order  that  the  momentum 
created  by  the  animal's  sudden  starts  forward  may  be  counter- 
balanced. An  attempt  to  hold  the  animal's  head  up  and  thus 
prevent  it  from  bucking  usually  results  in  the  animal  throwing 
itself.  The  common  idea  that  a  horse  is  assisted  in  recovering 
its  equiUbrium  if  the  reins  are  held  tight  is  erroneous.  At  such 
times  it  needs  all  possible  freedom  of  the  neck  muscles. 

If  a  saddle  animal  develops  the  habit  of  rearing  and  falling 
back  while  under  the  saddle,  great  care  must  be  exercised  in 
dismounting  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  may  be  done  by  plac- 
ing one  hand  either  side  of  the  saddle  horn,  against  the  fork,  and 
springing  backward  from  the  saddle ;  or  the  rider  may  dismount 
to  one  side.  In  either  case  he  should  spring  from  the  saddle 
with  sufficient  force  to  throw  himself  clear  of  the  animal  and 
prevent  it  from  faUing  upon  him.  At  the  instant  the  animal 
starts  to  regain  its  feet  he  should  remount;  otherwise  such  an 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  145 

animal,  believing  it  has  at  last  found  a  means  of  ridding  itseK 
of  the  rider's  weight,  will  persist  in  the  habit. 

Reins. — These  are  held  in  the  left  hand,  leaving  the  right 
free  for  the  use  of  a  rope,  quirt,  or  other  articles.  Usually  reins 
are  tied  together,  although  many  riders  prefer  them  separate, 
or  "  spUt."  When  used  in  the  work  of  roping  stock  they  are 
either  in  one  piece  or  else  tied  together  so  they  may  be  hung 
over  the  animal's  neck  or  the  saddle  horn  and  not  interfere 
with  the  use  of  the  rope  or  the  progress  of  the  horse.  The  length, 
however,  in  general  field  work,  is  a  matter  of  personal  opinion, 
and  nothing  more  definite  on  the  subject  can  be  offered 
here. 

Reining. — This  is  simply  the  operation  of  guiding  a  horse. 
A  very  common  method,  especially  common  to  all  parts  of  the 
West,  is  known  as  "  D3ck  "  reining.  By  this  method  a  horse  is 
turned  to  the  right  by  laying  the  near  rein  against  the  left  side 
of  his  neck  just  before  the  shoulders.  He  is  turned  to  the  left 
by  a  similar  pressure  of  the  off  rein  on  the  right  side  of  his  neck. 

In  many  sections  of  the  West,  where  stock  must  be  handled 
from  horseback,  saddle  animals  are  trained  to  stop  when  the 
reins  are  dropped  to  their  necks.  Ordinarily  they  are  started 
again  by  a  thrust  with  the  spurs. 

Another  common  method  of  guiding  and  stopping  saddle 
animals  is  known  as  "  legging."  By  this  method  the  rider  turns 
his  mount  to  the  left  by  pressure  of  his  knee  against  that  side, 
or,  if  personal  likes  dictate,  he  trains  the  animal  to  turn  in  the 
same  direction  by  pressure  of  the  other  knee.  The  animal  is 
stopped  by  pressure  of  both  knees  simultaneously. 

In  most  parts  of  the  East  and  South  a  saddle  animal  is  turned 
by  a  pull  at  the  bit  on  the  side  to  which  it  is  to  turn. 

Dismounting. — A  practical  knowledge  of  this  operation  is  per- 
haps more  important  than  knowing  how  to  mount,  and,  like  the 
latter,  is  accomphshed  in  different  localities  in  different  ways. 
The  safest  method  is  to  grasp  the  saddle  horn  firmly  with  the 
right  hand,  holding  the  reins  securely  in  the  left;  the  right  foot 
is  then  withdrawn  from  its  stirrup,  the  left  foot  is  moved  back- 
ward till  the  balls  of  the  toes  rest  in  the  stirrups,  the  right  leg 
is  passed  backward  over  the  cantle  and  downward  to  the  rear 
of  the  left  leg,  and  the  left  foot  is  finally  released  from  the  stirrup 
by  tipping  the  heel  downward.  This  enables  the  horseman  to 
alight  squarely  upon  both  feet  at  the  same  time,  and  still  leaves 


146   HANDBOOK  FOE  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

him  facing  in  the  same  direction  in  which  the  animal  has  been 
or  still  may  be  traveling. 

By  holding  the  reins  in  his  left  hand  he  is  able  to  check  his 
horse's  speed,  while  with  his  right  at  the  horn  he  steadies  him- 
seK  until  a  proper  equiUbrium  is  obtained.  He  is  also  held  well 
to  the  front  and  out  of  danger  of  being  trampled  upon  or 
kicked. 

This  is  the  safest  and  about  the  only  practicable  method  that 
can  be  used  in  dismounting  from  a  rapidly  moving  animal. 
In  such  a  case  the  rider  must,  of  course,  balance  himself  tem- 
porarily against  the  horse's  left  side  before  he  releases  his  left 
foot.  Very  Httle  practice  will  enable  him  to  dismount  while  the 
horse  travels  at  breakneck  speed. 

It  may  appear  to  the  inexperienced  field  man  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  such  a  method  of  dismounting  would  seldom  be  put  into 
effect,  but  when  he  considers  that  cattle  or  horses  may  have  to 
be  roped  and  then  tied  down  before  they  can  arise,  or  that  a 
stray  sheep  or  lamb  must  be  captured  and  its  earmarks  read, 
or  a  falling  or  rearing  horse  may  compel  him  to  dismount  as 
quickly  as  possible,  he  will  see  that  such  knowledge  wiU  not 
come  amiss. 

Another  method  of  dismounting,  particularly  common  to  the 
South  and  known  in  the  West  as  "  backing  out,"  is  to  grasp 
the  saddle  horn  and  the  reins  with  the  left  hand  and  the  cantle 
of  the  saddle  with  the  right  after  the  right  leg  has  been  thrown 
backward  over  the  cantle,  then,  turning  the  body  till  the  rider 
faces  the  animal,  dismount  by  stepping  down  backward  from 
the  stirrup.  This  is  safe  enough  with  gentle  and  well-trained 
animals,  but  should  not  be  used  if  fractious  or  partly  broken 
animals  are  being  ridden.  The  possibilities  of  having  a  foot 
hang  in  the  stirrup  and  of  an  animal's  sudden  attempt  to  escape 
are  too  important  to  overlook. 

Throughout  the  West  saddle  animals  are  usually  trained  to 
stand  without  being  tied,  the  rider  simply  throwing  his  reins 
to  the  ground  at  the  time  he  dismounts  and  making  no  further 
effort  to  confine  the  animal.  It  is  very  important  that  this 
custom  be  borne  in  mind,  since  if  such  animals  are  left  with  the 
reins  hanging  about  the  saddle  horn,  they  frequently  stray  away 
or  may  even  bolt  and  run  to  a  distance  that  makes  their  capture 
a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty. 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  147 


PACKING 


In  many  sections  of  the  \Yest,  where  travel  facilities  are 
limited,  suppHes  and  equipment  must  be  carried  from  place  to 
place  on  pack  animals.  This  is  not  as  awkward  a  means  of 
conveyance  as  it  may  seem.  If  the  packer  understands  his 
work  thoroughly  and  is  possessed  of  considerable  ingenuity  he 
win  have  little  or  no  difficulty  in  fastening  a  pack  so  it  may  be 
carried  for  a  long  distance.  The  load  may  be  a  cook  stove, 
telephone  wire  or  poles,  fence  posts,  grain,  bedding,  fire-fighting 
tools,  or  water,  or  it  may  consist  of  a  number  of  other  articles, 
all  of  which  may  be  transported  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner 
if  properly  loaded  and  secured  to  the  pack  saddle. 

Three  important  things  to  remember  are:  (1)  A  load  that 
must  be  carried  for  a  considerable  distance  should  not  exceed 
two  hundred  pounds  in  weight;  ^  (2)  The  weight  must  be  equally 
divided  between  the  two  sides  of  the  pack;  (3)  The  load  must 
be  firmly  tied  to  the  saddle  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit 
quick  unloading  if  the  pack  animal  falls,  becomes  entangled,  or 
otherwise  requires  immediate  relief  from  the  load.  A  pack 
weighing  one  hundred  pounds  is  much  more  wearisome  to  an 
animal  than  the  weight  of  a  man  weighing  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  pack  is  "  dead  " 
weight  and  either  maintains  the  same  position  at  aU  times  or 
else  sUps  about  over  the  saddle  with  sudden,  unyielding  move- 
ments that  soon  tire  the  animal.  If  the  man  is  a  reasonably 
good  rider  he  may  shift  his  position  and  weight  in  such  a  way 
as  to  assist  an  animal  in  traveling  over  rough  country.  "  One- 
side  "  packs,  or  packs  so  placed  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
weight  is  on  one  side,  soon  turn  unless  very  securely  tied.  If 
they  can  not  turn  they  soon  injure  an  animal's  back. 

Comphcated  knots  to  be  used  in  packing  are  not  only  diffi- 
cult to  tie,  but  they  may  even  prove  disastrous  if  a  fallen  animal 
is  to  be  quickly  reheved  of  its  pack.  The  simplest  knots  that 
will  hold  are  the  ones  to  be  used,  possible  opinions  of  old  packers 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

1  An  instance  of  unxisual  physical  power  in  a  pack  animal  is  of  au- 
thentic record  in  central  Arizona,  where  a  700-pound  piece  of  mining 
machiinerj'  was  carried  a  distance  of  34 -mile  by  a  mule  that  weighed 
nine  himdred  pounds.  The  animal  experienced  no  apparent  ill  effects 
from  such  exertion. 


148   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


HITCHES  USED 

Grain  Hitch. — This  hitch  is  not  required  if  panniers  are  to 
be  used.  Its  use  is  confined  chiefly  to  fastening  sacks  of  grain 
or  other  loose  articles  to  the  pack  saddle.     Its  construction  as 

applied  to  the  near  side  of  the 
saddle  is  sho'^n  in  Fig.  128. 
The  off  side  is  tied  in  a  similar 
manner,  the  rope  being  30  feet 
long  and  3^-inch  in  diameter. 
This  is  somewhat  longer  than 
is  absolutely  necessary  in  tying 
the  hitch,  but  being  of  that 
length,  if  the  loose  ends  are  so 
long  that  they  can  not  rendily 
be  disposed  of  otherwise,  they 
may  be  cut  off  and  used  as 
halter  or  tie  ropes.  It  is  given 
a  clove  hitch  about  the  front  fork  of  the  saddle  as  shown  in  Fig. 
129,  the  ends  emerging  from  the  front  side  of  the  hitch.  A  half- 
hitch  is  then  taken  about  the  rear  fork,  as  sho\\Ti  in  Fig.  130,  the 
off  end  of  the  rope  being  used  first  and  the  near  end  in  a  similar 


Fig.  128. 


Fig.  129.— Clove  hitch 
about  front  fork  of 
pack  saddle.  Front 


Fig.  130. — Loops  about  rear  fork  oi 
pack  saddle.     Rear  \iew. 


manner  later.  The  packer  then  shoulders  the  article  to  be 
packed,  raises  the  length  of  rope  passing  from  the  front  to  the 
rear  fork,  and  drops  the  load  between  it  and  the  saddle,  the 
loose  end  of  the  half-hitch  passing  up  under  and  around  the 
sack  as  shown  in  Fig.  128.  This  is  fastened  to  the  horizontal 
length  of  rope  as  shown  in  the  same  figure  and  the  end  is  left 


GENEItlL    FIELD    WORK 


149 


loose  until  the  opposite  side  is  loaded,  the  off  side  frequently 
l^eing  loaded  first.  The  horizontal  length  of  rope  can  best  be 
tightened  by  pulhng  downward  on  the  haK-hitch.  The  two 
loose  ends  of  rope  are  tied  together  after  both  sides  of  the  pack 
have  been  loaded.  After  the  ends  have  been  crossed  over  each 
other  a  half-hitch  in  one  may  be  turned  about  a  loop  in  the 
other,  thus  providing  a  knot  that  may  be  released  instantly  by 
a  pull  at  the  loose  end  of  the  rope. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  clove  hitch  about  the  front 
fork  can  not  be  shpped  and  that  the  rope  must  therefore  be 
loosened  at  the  rear  fork  first.  This  will  permit  the  horizontal 
lengths  to  be  pulled  out  far  enough  from  the  pack  to  let  the 
pack  fall  through  the  loop  to  the  ground. 

Diamond  Hitch. — There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  the  dia- 
mond hitch,  but  only  the  one  most  widely  used  can  be  discussed 
here.   It  is  suggested  that  the  beginner  famiharize  himself  with  this 


Fig.  131. — Top  -view  of  dia- 
mond hitch. 


Fig.  132. — First  position  of 
lash  rope.     Near  side. 


form  first  and  that  he  learn  other  forms  after  he  has  mastered  it. 
A  common  mistake  made  by  amateur  packers  is  their  propensity 
for  trying  to  learn  all  the  different  forms  of  hitches  used  in  pack- 
ing before  they  are  thoroughly  versed  in  the  use  of  one. 

The  diamond  hitch  described  here  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  131 
can  be  apphed  without  difficulty  by  one  man  and  will  be  found 
very  convenient  in  fastening  dowTi  the  top  pack.  This  part 
of  the  pack  consists  of  bedding,  tents,  etc.,  usually  carried  over 
the  grain  or  other  articles  confined  by  the  grain  hitch,  and  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  it  is  evenly  balanced.     Bedding  should 


150   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

be  -^Tapped  in  a  tarpaulin  or  tent  before  it  is  packed.     The  can- 
vas protects  it  from  rain  and  brush. 

The  lash  rope  should  be  30  feet  long  and  3'2-inch  in  diameter. 
If  there  is  good  reason  to  beheve  that  there  will  be  no  occasion 
to  use  it  except  for  packing  purposes  then  the  end  may  be  made 
fast  to  the  ring  in  the  lash  cinch  by  means  of  an  eye  splice. 
Otherwise  it  should  be  merel}^  tied  into  the  ring  so  it  can  be  re- 
moved with  less  difficulty.  When  the  pack  is  ready  to  be  lashed 
down  the  lash  cinch  is  thrown  over  it  from  the  near  side,  the 
packer  catches  the  lash  hook  as  it  swings  upward  from  beneath 
the  animal's  body,  hangs  it  over  the  lash  rope  with  the  open 
side  of  the  hook  to  the  rear,  and  then  passes  the  rope  upward 
along  itself  to  the  top  of  the  pack,  allowing  2  or  3  feet  of  the 
end  to  remain  on  the  near  side.  This  is  the  first  po- 
sition of  the  lash  rope  and  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  132. 
He  then  takes  a  bight,  or  bend,  in  the  second  length 
about  the  first  length  at  the  top  of  the  pack  as 
shown  in  Fig.  133,  passing  the  second  twice  around 
the  first  and  from  the  upper  side.  The  loose  end  is 
passed  to  the  rear,  downward,  forward  under  the  off 
grain  pack,  upward  around  the  off  forward  part  of 
the  top  pack,  through  the  bight,  downward  around 
„  1  oo  _  ^^^  ^^^^  fonv^ard  part  of  the  top  pack,  rearward 
Second  po-  'Wilder  the  near  grain  pack,  and  upward  around  the 
sition  of  near  rear  part  of  the  top  pack  to  the  first  length 
lash  rope,  of  rope  over  the  pack.  It  is  tied  here  in  an  over- 
hand loop  knot  and  the  hitch  is  completed  as  shown 
in  Fig.  131.  To  be  effective  the  hitch  must  be  drawn  very  tight. 
This  is  done  by  beginning  at  the  hook  and  successively  tight- 
ening each  length. 

Axes,  picks,  rakes,  shovels,  crowbars,  tripods  and  other  similar 
instruments  may  be  thrust  through  under  the  ropes  after  the 
hitch  has  been  completed  and  made  fast.  This  not  only  holds 
them  more  securely,  but  also  serves  to  tighten  the  ropes  about 
the  pack.  Instances  may  occur,  of  course,  where  such  a  method 
of  loading  these  articles  is  not  desirable,  and  in  such  cases  they 
must  be  placed  on  the  pack  before  the  ropes  are  tightened  and 
tied.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  forward  ends  do  not 
project  upward  or  forward  to  an  extent  that  may  cause  them 
to  hang  in  brush  or  against  low  branches. 

The  ax  should  always  be  so  fastened  to  the  pack  that  it  may 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK 


151 


be  removed  quickly  and  without  difficulty.  Picket  ropes,  hob- 
bles, bells,  morrals,  canteens,  and  other  such  articles  may  be 
distributed  about  over  the  pack  at  the  most  convenient  points, 
but  none  of  them  should  be  allowed  to  hang  loose  and  dangle 
or  hang  in  brush. 

The  hitch  is  released  by  pulhng  the  loop  from  the  overhand 
knot.     This  usually  loosens  the  rope  enough  to  permit  removal 


Rear 


Tightened  Hitch 


Rear 


Pirst  Position 


Fig.  134. 


-Top  view  of  a  variation  of  the  Diamond  hitch, 
portions  of  rope  come  under  the  pack.) 


(Shaded 


of  the  hook,  after  which  the  rope  may  be  thrown  off  at  one  side. 

During  his  first  leisure  moments  after  unpacking  the  packer 

should  see  that  his  pack  ropes  are  all  untangled  and 

neatly  coiled  for  use  the  next  time.     Badly  tangled 

or  misplaced  ropes  are  a  great  inconvenience  when 

hurried   packing  becomes  necessary  or  when  bad 

weather  makes  the  work  unpleasant.     A  variation 

of  the  diamond  hitch  is  sho'WTi  in  Fig.   134.     This 

is  a  favorite  hitch  among  wood  packers,  and  aside 

from  being  especially  effective  for  such  use  is    so 

quickly  and  easily  appUed  that  httle  time  is  wasted. 

It  differs  from  the  first  form  of  the  diamond  hitch 

showTi  in  that  each   successive   length    of   rope   is 

tightened  as  it  is  reached.     The  cinch    is    usually 

passed    beneath    the    animal's  body   from  the  near  side,   thus 

allowing  the  final  tightening  to  be   done   from  the  front  rather 

than  at  the  rear  of  the  animal. 


Fig.  135. — 

One     form 

of     the 

"squaw" 

hitch. 


152   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Squaw  Hitch. — This  hitch  also  requires  the  services  of  two 
men.  In  one  form  of  the  hitch  the  rope  is  double  at  about  one- 
third  its  length  and  the  loops  1,  2,  and  3,  shown  in  Fig.  135,  are 


Fig.  136.— Half-hitch. 


Fig.  137.— Cross  hitch. 


placed  in  position  on  top  of  the  pack  and  held  there  by  one 
man  while  the  other  disposes  of  the  lengths  4,  5,  and  6  by  passing 
them  beneath  the  animal's  body  and  making  them  fast  as  indi- 


FiG.  138. — Bed  roll  ready  for  transportation  by  wagon. 


cated.  The  hitch  is  not  only  difficult  to  construct  properly  but 
it  is  also  too  cumbersome  and  comphcated  to  prove  satisfactory 
otherwise. 

Half-Hitch. — This  is  shown  in  Fig.  136  and  consists  merely  of 
the  half-hitches  3,  4,  and  5  placed  about  the  tent  or  bed  roll. 
Ends  1  and  2  are  tied  together  beneath  the  animal.  The  hitch 
is  very  unsatisfactory  when  poorly  trained  or  half-broken  pack 
animals  are  used.     It  usually  allows  the  pack  to  turn  sidewise 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  153 

or  slip  forward  or  backward,  and  thus  requires  continual  read- 
justment. 

Cross  Hitch. — This  hitch  is  tied  at  the  top  of  the  pack  as 
shown  in  Fig.  137.  The  lengths  of  rope  3  and  4  pass  beneath 
the  animal's  body.  It  possesses  the  same  disadvantages  as  the 
half  hitch. 

WAGONS 

The  use  of  wagons  by  field  men  in  the  Forest  Service  is  very 
limited  except  in  transporting  camp  equipment  or  supplies  ia 
reconnoissance  work  or  on  extended  camping  trips  and  in  hauling 
provisions,  feed,  and  other  supplies  into  camp  or  to  Ranger  stations. 

Occasionally,  however,  they  may  be  required  in  improvement 
work  such  as  road-  or  trail-building  or  construction  of  telephone 
Hnes  and  other  similar  work.  They  are  seldom  purchased  out- 
right but  are  frequently  hired  for  temporary  use  unless  the  field 
man  has  one  of  his  own  which  he  is  wilhng  to  use  in  official  work. 
Nevertheless  it  is  well  for  him  to  know  what  tyj^e  of  wagon  is 
best  fitted  for  the  work  to  be  done  and  to  secure  strong,  rehable 
wagons  in  preference  to  others  that  may  require  constant  re- 
pairing. It  is  seldom  possible  to  find  an  ideal  wagon  for  hire, 
but  if  one  is  selected  as  nearly  as  possible  in  accordance  with 
the  following  suggestions  it  will  give  general  satisfaction: 

Type. — Since  practically  aU  wagon  work  done  by  the  Forest 
Service  is  in  rough,  mountainous  country  a  regulation  moun- 
tain wagon  is  most  desirable.  This  is  of  the  narrow-track  style, 
being  4  feet  6  inches  from  center  to  center  of  the  tires  on  the 
ground.^  It  carries  a  3S-inch  bed,  weighs  approximately  twelve 
hundred  pounds  and  has  a  safe  car- 
rying capacity  of  thirty-five  hundred 
pounds. 

Size. — The  size  of  a  wagon  is  de 
termined  by  the  outside  diameter   of 
the  skein  at  its  shoulder  and  by  the  Fig.  139. — Skein, 

length  of    surface   presented   to  the 

boxing  of  the  hub.  Thus  a  3  by  9  wagon,  which  is  the  best  size 
for  general  work,  has  skeins  3  inches  in  diameter  at  the  shoul- 
der with  a  9-inch  bearing  length.  See  Fig.  139.  The  size 
will  be  found  stenciled  on  the  back  of  the  rear  bolster. 


1 A  wide-track  Wagon  measures  5  feet  from  center  to  center  of  the 

tireo  on  the  ground. 


154   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Wheels. — Regular  size  narrow  tires  for  3  by  9  mountain  wagon 
wheels  are  13^  inches  wide  and  %  inch  thick.  They  may  or 
may  not  be  secured  to  the  felloes  by  means  of  tire  rivets.  The 
latter  are  inserted  between  the  felloes  and  the  tire  and  are  rivet- 
headed  at  each  end.  Some  manufactm-ers  claim  that  they  are 
detrimental  to  a  wheel  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  in  hot,  dry 
weather,  during  which  the  felloes  shrink  and  the  tires  expand, 
they  have  a  tendency  to  spht  and  batter  the  felloes  as  the  tire 
is  forced  sidewise  on  rough  roads.  They  also  assert  that  the 
rivet  heads  soon  wear  away,  allow  the  rivets  to  work  out,  and 
thus  cause  the  tires  to  loosen  more  quickly.  These  objections 
to  tire  rivets  or  bolts  are  logical  so  far  as  they  go,  but  when 
tires  are  so  loose  as  to  allow  the  rivet  heads  to  batter  the  felloes 
they  should  be  reset  as  soon  as  possible.  Moreover,  especially 
in  regions  remote  from  repair  shops,  it  is  much  better  to  have 
a  loose  tire  secured  to  the  felloes  than  to  have  it  run  off  and  allow 
a  wheel  to  be  broken  down. 

Felloes  and  hubs,  the  latter  well  ironed,  should  be  of  seasoned 
white  oak  (Quercus  alba):  Spokes  should  be  of  seasoned  second 
growth  white  oak  or  hickory  {Hicoria  ovata  or  alba).  The  regu- 
lar number  of  spokes  in  a  wheel  is  twelve  front  and  fourteen 
rear,  but  those  which  bear  fourteen  front  and  sixteen  rear  are 
about  one-sixth  stronger  than  the  others.  A  wheel  height  of 
44  inches  front  and  52  rear  will  be  found  most  satisfactory  for 
general  work. 

Two  very  widespread  though  erroneous  ideas  with  reference 
to  wheels  are  that  when  a  wagon  sets  on  approximately  level 
ground  the  front  end  of  the  bed  is  lower  than  the  rear,  or  that, 
in  the  same  position  of  the  wagon,  the  rear  end  of  the  bed  is 
lower.  The  first  is  no  doubt  based  on  the  supposition  that  the 
fore  wheels,  being  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  rear  wheels, 
necessarily  lower  that  end  of  the  bed.  The  second  probably 
originates  in  failure  to  observe  the  difference  in  diameter  of  fore 
and  rear  wheels,  and  is  merely  an  assumption  that  since  the 
front  end  of  the  bed  comes  even  with  or  above  the  wheel  top, 
while  the  rear  end  is  considerably  lower  than  the  rear  wheel 
top,  the  rear  end  of  the  bed  is  consequently  lower.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  except  when  the  construction  has  been  for  some  par- 
ticular purpose,  a  wagon  gear  is  usually  so  constructed  that 
when  it  sets  on  level  ground  the  bed  is  also  level.  Fore  wheels 
are  made  smaller  than  rear  wheels  in  order  not  only  to  provide 


GENERAL   FIELD   WORK  155 

room  for  the  sand  board  and  usually  heavier  rocking  bolster, 
^ut  also  to  facilitate  turning  the  wagon  about  in  close 
quarters. 

The  smaller  circumference  of  low  wheels  allows  them  to  drop 
into  ruts  over  which  higher  wheels  pass  with  greater  faciUty, 
and  since  less  leverage  is  provided  by  the  short  spokes  such 
wheels  make  a  wagon  pull  harder  on  rough  roads  than  if  it  were 
fitted  with  high  wheels. 

Dish. — Each  wheel  should  have  a  dish  equal  to  one-half  the 
width  of  a  regular  narrow  tire,  and  the  tires  should  be  strong 
enough  to  maintain  such  a  dish.  Wheels  without  dish  are  no 
stronger  than  the  spoke  tendons  in  the  hubs,  and  a  very  light 
load,  or  even  the  weight  of  an  empty  bed,  carried  over  a  rough 
road  may  force  the  hubs  through. 

Wagons  should  not  be  hired  if  their  tires  have  been  set  so 
often  as  to  produce  excessive  dish.  In  such  wheels  the  spokes 
do  not  stand  perpendicularly  under  the  load  and  can  not  there- 
fore support  a  heavy  weight.  Moreover,  they  cause  the  rims  to 
bind  in  ruts,  they  destroy  the  proper  pitch  and  gather,  and  they 
are  generally  unsatisfactory  to  use. 

Gather. — This  is  provided  for  in  fitting  the  skein  to  the  axle. 
The  object  of  such  construction  is  to  force  the  hub  toward 
rather  than  away  from  the  shoulder  of  the  skein  when  a  heavy 
load  is  being  carried.  Otherwise  the  wheels  of  the  same  pair 
would  have  a  tendency  to  pull  away  from  each  other  and  thereby 
offer  much  greater  resistance  to  the  road.  Properly  gathered 
wheels  of  the  same  pair  are  from  3  to  4  inches  nearer  each  other 
at  their  forward  circumference  than  at  their  rear  circumference. 

Pitch. — This  term  is  known  in  some  locaUties  as  ''  tread,"  or 
it  may  be  designated  as  "  set."  It  has  reference  to  the  differ- 
ence in  distance  between  the  lower  circumference  of  the  same 
pair  of  wheels  as  compared  with  the  upper  circumference,  in 
properly  pitched  wheels  about  the  same  as  in  gather.  When  it 
is  measured  from  outside  to  outside  the  distance  between  the 
rims  at  the  point  nearest  the  gi'ound  should  be  the  same  as  that 
just  under  the  hub.  Pitch  is  also  provided  for  in  fitting  the 
skeins  to  the  axle.  It  not  only  brings  the  weight  of  the  load 
more  in  a  perpendicular  fine  over  the  bearing  portion  of  the 
wheels,  but  it  also  serves  to  hold  the  hubs  against  the  shoulders 
of  the  skeins  and  counteracts  the  wheels'  tendency  to  run  off. 

Track. — This  term  has  reference  to  the  action  of  the  rear 


156        HANDBOOK    FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

wheels  in  following  the  track  of  the  fore  wheels.  It  is  at  once 
apparent  that  unless  the  construction  is  such  as  to  permit  this 
the  rear  wheels  will  offer  greater  resistance  to  the  road  and  the 
draft  must  be  increased  accordingly.     Difficulty  in  this  respect 


Dust  CoOar 


Bui)  Band 


Method  of  attaching  skein  to  wood  axle. 


Method  of  attaching  skein  to  steel  axle. 
Fig.  140. 


may  be  due  to  a  crooked  reach  or  tongue,  excessive  dish  may 
be  present  in  one  or  more  wheels,  the  skeins  may  not  be  prop- 
erly fitted  to  the  axle,  or  the  boxing  may  not  be  squarely  set 
in  the  hubs. 

If  the  wheels  track  and  have  the  proper  pitch  and  gather  a 
wagon  may  be  run  over  a  smooth  road  without  taps  so  long 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK 


157 


as  the  direction  of  travel  is  forward.     The  gather  will  of  course 
force  the  wheels  off  soon  after  the  wagon  is  started  backward. 

Skeins. — These  should  be  given  a  very  thorough  examination 
before  a  wagon  is  hired.     If  it  has  had  considerable  wear  this 


Top  view. 


End  of  Hoand 


Lower  Hound  Brace 

Upper  Hound  Brace 
Stay  Chain  Hook 


Angle  Steel 
one  piece  Hounds 


Bottom  view. 
Fig.  141. — Front  gear.     (Steel  axle.) 


will  be  apparent  at  the  shoulder.  It  will  be  especially  promi- 
nent at  the  upper  side  of  the  shoulder  and  the  lower  side  of  the 
point  if  the  pitch  has  been  lost.     Lost  gather  will  be  indicated 


158   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

by  wear  at  the  rear  side  of  the  shoulder  and  the  front  side  of 
the  point. 

Skeins  are  attached  to  axles  as  shown  in  Fig.  140. 

GEARS 

Hounds. — This  is  sometimes  spelled  "  hawns,"  and  this  form 
of  the  word  will  be  frequently  met  with  in  catalogs  of  hardware 


chain  hook 
Lower  hound  brace 


Top  view. 


Upper  hound  brace 


Saiid  collar 


Hound  end 
Tongue  bolt 
Lower  hound  brace 
Sand  board 
Stay  chainhook 


Sway  bar 


Bottom  view. 
Fig.  141a. — Front  gear.     (Wood  axle.) 

and  woodenware.  They  should  be  of  seasoned  hickory  or  white 
oak  and  well  ironed  and  braced.  See  Figs.  141  and  141a.  The 
front  end  of  the  rear  hounds  should  be  bolted  securely  together 
through  the  reach  plate  as  shown  in  Fig.  142.  Angle-steel  bent 
one-piece  front  hounds,  wood  filled  before  the  axle,  are  prefer- 
able to  all-wood  square  hounds  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  there  is 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK 


159 


less  surface  exposed  to  brush  and  stumps.  Both  front  and  rear 
hounds  should  be  well  "  bushed  "  or  h'oned  at  all  points  where 
wear  of  the  reach  will  occur.     This  of  course  puts  all  the  wear 


Coupling  Pin 

Fig.  142. — Sectional  view  of  reach  plate. 

on  the  reach,  but  when  it  becomes  worn  to  a  degree  that  requires 
a  new  reach  this  may  be  secured  with  much  less  trouble  and 
expense  than  hounds  or  any  of  their  parts. 

Front  Bolster. — This  should  be  of  hickory  or  white  oak,  well 
ironed,  and  fitted  with  hollow  steel  stakes  into  which  longer 
wooden  stakes,  known  as  "  false  "  stakes,  may  be  thrust  if  high 
loads  of  poles,  posts,  or  similar  articles  are  to  be  hauled.  If  fitted 
with  ii-on-bound  wooden  stakes  the  irons  should  be  rounded  at 
the  lower  ends,  threaded,  and  bolted  tlirough  the  bolster  rather 
than  bent  at  right  angles  and  fastened  to  the  upper  side  of  it. 
The  hollow  steel  stakes  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  143.  The  lower 
bolster  plate,  attached  to  the  sand  board  as  showTi  in  Fig.  144, 
should  be  equipped  ■s\'ith  a  catch  which  locks  it  to  the  upper 
plate  and  prevents  the  king  bolt  from  being  withdrawn  by  the 
bolster  if  a  tightly  fitting  bed  is  to  be  removed.  It  should  also 
have  a  raised  center  as  shown  in  the  same  figure.  This  prevents 
wear  or  breakage  of  the  king  bolt  and  serves  to  steady  a  top-heavy 
load.     This  bolster  is  known  also  as  a  "  rocking  "  bolster. 

Rear  Bolster. — This  bolster  is  rigidly  chpped  to  the  rear  axle 
as  showTi  in  Fig.  146.  Other  fittings,  except  lower  plates  which 
these  bolsters  do  not  have,  should  be  the  same  as  for  the  front 
bolster. 

Brake. — A  regular  mountain  brake  is  shown  in  Fig.  146  and 
this  style  should  be  used  in  all  mountain  hauling.     The  blocks 


160   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

should  be  kept  in  good  repair  and  should  be  heavy  enough  to 
withstand  the  hardest  usage.  They  are  fastened  in  the  shoes 
by  being  beveled  inward  from  the  rear  edges.     The  most  satis- 


Raised  Center 


False  False  stake 
Stake.  stake,     inserted. 


Fig.  143. 


Fig.  144. — Bolster  plates. 


■Tcuss  Rod 


Fig.  145. — Front  or  "rocking"  bolster. 

factory  and  convenient  method  of  keeping  them  in  good  condi- 
tion is  to  nail  pieces  of  1-  or  2-inch  plank  to  the  faces  and  thereby 
prevent  direct  contact  of  the  blocks  with  the  tires.     Other  pieces 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK 


161 


may  be  nailed  on  as  the  old  ones  are  worn  through  or  torn  off. 
Iron  shoes  will  be  found  preferable  to  wooden  shoes,  as  the  latter 
catch  grit  that  soon  becomes  imbedded  in  them  and  causes 


Skein  Should 


Cross  Bar  Hanger 
Eye  Bolt 


Stake  Iron 
Stake  Ring 

Stake  Brace 
Bolster 
Skein 

Tap 
Hound       M^^^  Hanger 

Brake  Block 
Brake  Shoe 
Brake  Beam 


Fig.  146. — Rear  gear  with  mountain  brake. 


(Brake  Lever_ 


Brake  Rod 


severe  wear  on  the  tires.     Jump  welds  in  the  brake  roller  are  to 
be  avoided,  as  they  may  break  at  a  critical  moment  and  cause 
serious  damage  to  the  wagon,  team,  or  driver.     The  roller  is 
connected  with  the  brake  lever,  shown 
in    Fig.    147,    by    means   of    what    is 
known  as   the   "  brake  rod."     If   gear 
hauling  is  to  be  done  a  pole  is  thrust 
into  the  rings   of   the  roUer   arm   and 
serves  the  purpose  of  a  brake  lever. 

Bed  brakes  with  two  and  three  bars 
are  shown  in  Fig.  148.  They  can  not 
be  used  in  gear  hauHng. 

Tongue. — Straightness  and  absolute 
soundness  are  the  two  chief  require- 
ments in  a  wagon  tongue.  One  that 
crooks  to  either  side  or  is  improperly 
set  in  the  hounds  has   a   tendency   to 

lead  the  fore  wheels  out  of  the  road  and  is  a  continual  source  of  an- 
noyance. The  forward  end  should  be  exactly  the  same  distance 
from  the  shoulder  of  either  front  skein.  If  not  so  fitted,  trouble 
will  invariably  result.  Iron  parts  should  aU  be  fastened  down 
securely  and  not  allowed  to  project  and  offer  possible  means  of 
injury  to  the  team.  If  more  than  two  horses  are  to  be  used 
the  forward  end  may  be  fitted  either  with  an  iron  ring  into  which 
a  chain  may  be  looped  or  with  an  upright  hook  known  as  a 


Fig.  147. 


162   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

"  goose  neck."  The  latter  is  always  used  when  cattle  are  to  be 
worked,  but  in  such  a  case  the  tongue  must  be  shorter  and  heavier 
than  that  used  for  horses. 

Stiff  tongues,   which  are  so  fastened  into  the  front  hounds 
that  the  forward  end  can  not  be  dropped,  and  which  are  known 


2-bar  bed  brake. 


Fig.  148. 


3-bar  bed  brake. 


in  most  localities  as  "  poles,"  are  not  satisfactory  when  heavy 
hauUng  is  to  be  done  over  rough  roads.  They  whip  the  team 
and  render  control  of  the  fore  wheels  difficult.  Half -drop  tongues 
may  be  used  on  comparatively  smooth  roads,  but  for  all-round 
work  drop  tongues  are  preferable. 


Tongue  Hound- 


-Cap 


Fig.  149. — Tongue. 


Neck  Yoke.— This  is  frequently  known  as  a  "  breast  yoke," 
the  term  probably  originating  from  the  fact  that  the  article 
works  before  the  horses'  breasts.  It  should  be  straight  and 
sound  and  must  be  especially  reUable  if  heavy  downhill  hauling 
is  to  be  done.  This  is  due  to  the  weight  of  the  load  being  thrown 
against  it  at  the  center  ring.  The  end  ferrules  must  be  kept 
tight  and  both  end-  and  center-rings  must  be  strong.  The  upper 
side  should  be  ironed  if  either  or  both  animals  in  the  team  are 
cribbers.     See  Fig.  150. 

Evener. — Another  common  name  of  this  article  is  "  double 
tree."  It  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  gears,  since  the  entire 
weight  of  the  load  is  pulled  directly  from  its  center  hole.  For 
this  reason  it  must  be  of  especially  strong  material  free  from 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  163 

flaws,  such  as  knots  and  cracks  or  crooked,  twisted,  or  warped 
grain. 

Together  with  the  single  trees  it  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  152. 

Single  Trees. — In  many  localities  these  are  kno\Mi  as  "  whiffle "- 
trees.     They  serve  as  a  means  of  attaching  the  team  to  the  load, 

End  Ring . 


l^jiiziiizzL,,..  ,.^  ...,_---^j::!^ 

im^ 

^'^^^^ 

Ferrule.'' 

^^^^^  Center  Ring 

Fig.  150. — Xeck  yoke 

and,  like  the  double  tree,  must  be  of  very  sound  material.     They 
should  be  fitted  with  a  straight  center  chp  and  ring,  end  ferrules 
rather  than  loops,  and  end  cHps  so  constructed  that  the  traces 
of  the  harness  will  not  work  out  easily.     Substantial  clevises 
fitted    with    screw    pins    should    be 
used  to  attach  them  to  the  double 
tree.     If  straight  pins  are  used  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  they  do  not         [                             ^ 
work  up  and  allow  the  clevis  to  be         \                            ^; 
broken.  ^'''^«:^ ^ 

Bed.— For    heavy     hauling     this       piQ.    151.— Evener    end. 
should   be    extra     strong     and     well         Showing  bushing  of  clevis 
braced.     If  numerous  boxes,  bundles,         P^  ^ole. 
duffle  bags,  and  similar  articles  are 

to  be  hauled  the  most  satisfactory  type  of  bed  is  that  known 
as  a  "  rack."  This  is  built  in  different  sizes  from  10  feet 
to  15  feet  and  6  inches  long,  made  38,  42,  and  44  inches  wide, 
has  from  5-  to  8-inch  sills,  10-  to  14-inch  side  boards,  a 
tool  box  at  the  front  end,  has  an  elevated  seat  and  weighs  from 
three  hundred  and  forty  to  six  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds. 
Bulky  loads  may  be  hauled  without  difflculty  if  the  side  boards 
are  fitted  with  wings. 

The  first  pair  of  side  boards  of  an  ordinary  wagon  bed  make 
the  sides  of  the  "  bottom  "  box;  the  second  pair  make  the  "  top  " 
box;  and  the  third  pair  make  the  "  tip-top  "  box.  The  last 
are  seldom  used  except  in  hauling  cotton,  grain,  and  similar 
articles.     They  are  shown  in  Fig.  153.     Rub  irons  should  be  in 


164        HANDBOOK    FOR   R.A.NGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

good  condition  and  thick  enough  to  prevent  wear  of  the  tires 
against  the  lower  corners  of  the  bed.     See  Fig.  154. 


Fig.  152. — Evener  and  single  trees. 


Tip  Top 
Bo?  Side 


Bottom 
Box 

i 


END  CLEATS  OF  BED    SIDE  BRACE  OF  BED 

Fig.  153 


Fig.  154. — Rub  iron.    "Cut- 
under"  type. 


CARE  OF  WAGONS 

Oiling  or  Greasing. — Oil  or  grease  should  always  be  placed  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  skein  immediately  next  to  the  shoulder. 
The  wheel  will  gradually  work  it  around  from  there  to  all  parts 
of  the  skein  and  the  boxing,  and  particularly  to  those  points 
where  the  greatest  pressure  comes.  Castor  oil  is  the  best  lubri- 
cant that  can  be  obtained,  and  not  more  than  a  thimbleful  is  nec- 
essary for  one  appUcation.  If  more  than  this  is  used  it  will 
work  out  and  be  wasted. 

Grease  may  be  smeared  on  the  skein  with  a  small  paddle 
short  enough  to  be  kept  in  the  grease  box.  The  amount  used 
at  one  appHcation  need  not  exceed  one-half  cubic  inch,  and  if 


GENERAL    FIELD    WORK 


165 


the  skeins  are  greased  regularly  every  day  two-thirds  of  this 
amount  will  be  sufficient. 

Removal  and  Replacement  of  Taps. — These  operations  are 
I^erformed  by  means  of  the  wrench-headed  bolt  which  holds  the 
evener  or  double  tree  to  the  tongue  and  which  is  known  as  a 


n^'T^r'  ^^"^  Block 
Bunk  Pin  _  --==!  ' ' ,  '•*-     -  Los?  Bolster 


Log  gears. 


Log  gears  with  log  bolsters  removed.    (For  hauling  lumber.) 
Fig.  155. 


"  wagon  hammer  "  or  "  wagon  wTench."  In  removing  a  tap  its 
edge  nearest  the  front  of  the  wagon  is  turned  upward  and  back- 
ward toward  the  rear.  This  rule  appHes  to  all  four  taps,  two 
of  which  are  "  left-handed  "  or  "  left-threaded."  These  are  the 
ones  on  the  left  side  of  the  w^agon.  They  are  replaced  of  course 
by  turning  them  in  an  opposite  direction.  It  wiU  be  seen  at 
once  that  as  the  result  of  being  screwed  to  the  skeins  in  this 
manner  they  have  a  tendency  to  tighten  rather  than  loosen  as 
the  wheels  revolve  forward. 

When  removed  they  should  not  be  laid  with  the  greasy  side 
downward  but  should  be  so  disposed  of  that  the  side  which 
works  next  the  boxing  of  the  hub  is  up.  If  two  or  more  are 
removed  at  the  same  time  and  those  from  opposite  sides  be- 
come mixed  they  may  be  identified  by  a  raised  letter  which 


166   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

appears  on  one  of  the  square  sides.  On  taps  of  the  left  side 
this  letter  is  L  and  on  the  others  it  is  R.  No  tap  can  be  screwt-d 
on  a  skein  opposite  that  for  which  it  was  intended,  although  taps 
of  the  same  side  will  fit  either  the  front  or  rear  skein  of  that  side. 

Removal  and  Replacement  of  Wheels. — These  need  not  be 
completely  removed  when  gi'easing  is  to  be  done.  The  wheel 
is  simply  lifted  from  the  ground  after  the  tap  is  removed  and 
is  then  shd  outward  about  3  inches  from  the  skein  shoulder. 
It  is  then  lowered  to  the  ground,  and  if  necessary  tipped  further 
outward  to  enable  the  skein  to  be  reached  more  readily.  After 
the  grease  has  been  apphed  the  wheel  is  tipped  back  to  the 
perpendicular,  lifted  straight  up,  and  then  slid  straight  back 
against  the  skein  shoulder.  This  method  of  removing  the  wheel 
for  greasing  is  very  convenient  when  no  wagon  jack  is  available, 
and  a  man  with  ordinary  strength  will  experience  no  difficulty 
in  raising  the  wheel  of  an  unloaded  wagon,  the  easiest  way  of 
doing  which  is  to  seize  a  spoke  in  either  hand  as  he  faces  the 
wheel  and  then  hft  straight  up  and  sHghtly  outward.  In  re- 
placing a  wheel  raised  with  a  jack  it  should  be  lifted  till  the 
boxing  strikes  the  under  side  of  the  skein  and  then  sUd  back 
against  the  skein  shoulder. 

The  coning  of  skeins  and  boxing  makes  it  impossible  to  put 
a  wheel  on  backward,  and  the  boxing  of  any  wheel  in  a  set  will 
fit  any  skein  of  the  corresponding  set  unless  special  construction 
is  responsible  for  front  and  rear  skeins  of  different  sizes.  In 
other  words,  so  long  as  a  set  is  not  broken,  rear  wheels  may  be 
used  on  front  skeins,  front  wheels  may  be  used  on  rear  skeins, 
wheels  of  the  right  side  may  be  used  on  the  left  side  or  wheels 
of  the  left  side  may  be  used  on  the  right  side. 

In  specially  constructed  wagons  having  front  and  rear  skeins 
of  different  sizes  the  skeins  of  the  same  axle  are  of  the  same  size. 

Greasing  the  Bolster  Plates. — ]\lany  teamsters  attempt  to 
make  travel  easier  for  their  teams  by  keeping  the  bolster  plates 
well  greased  in  order  to  facilitate  turning.  Turning  is  without 
doubt  performed  with  greater  ease  when  the  plates  are  greased, 
but  for  this  very  reason  the  tongue  whips  the  animals  more 
severely  when  rough  roads  are  traveled  over  and  the  resultant 
disadvantages  far  outweigh  the  advantages  gained  by  greasing 
the  plates.  Consequently,  the  practice  is  to  be  avoided  except 
in  certain  cases  when  for  some  unusual  reason  turning  can  be 
accomplished  only  with  difficulty  unless  the  plates  are  greased. 


GENERAL    FIELD    WORK  167 

Tires. — Tight  tii-es  constitute  the  chief  factor  in  economical 
upkeep  of  a  wagon.  Efficiency  of  a  wheel  depends  wholly  upon 
the  strength  of  the  tire  and  the  degree  of  closeness  with  which 
it  fits  against  the  felloes.  "Weak  or  loose  tires,  therefore,  lessen 
a  wheel's  capacity  for  supporting  a  heavy  load,  and  if  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  wheel  will  eventually  let  it  break  down. 
If  they  become  so  loose  that  they  must  be  tied  or  wired 
to  the  felloes,  they  should  be  re-set  immediately.  This  should 
not  be  done,  however,  by  an  inexperienced  person,  but  the  work 
should  be  taken  to  a  competent  blacksmith  or  wheelwright. 
If  tires  merely  slip  to  one  side  they  may  be  forced  back  into 
position  by  slight  taps  against  the  exposed  felloes  immediately 
beneath  those  portions  which  have  sHpped.  They  can  not  be 
forced  into  position  by  blows  directed  against  the  projecting 
edges. 

Use  of  the  Brake. — Proper  use  of  their  brake  is  one  impor- 
tant feature  of  good  driving  that  many  teamsters  overlook,  and 
the  usual  result  is  sore  necks  for  the  team,  damage  to  the  wagon, 
or  even  severe  accidents  to  both  the  driver  or  his  team  and 
wagon.  The  brake  is  suppHed  for  the  purpose  of  regulating 
the  speed  with  which  a  load  descends  a  grade,  and  the  weight 
of  the  wagon,  whether  loaded  or  empty,  should  never  be  allowed 
to  jam  suddenly  against  the  center  ring  of  the  neck  yoke.  Neither 
should  the  brake  be  set  at  one  pressure  and  left  there  through- 
out the  entire  descent  of  a  grade.  It  should  be  regulated  in 
such  a  way  as  to  keep  the  load  mo\dng  at  a  uniform  momentum 
in  descent.  Its  proper  and  intelligent  use  gives  the  driver  al- 
most absolute  control  of  his  load  at  all  times,  and  a  little  experi- 
ence will  soon  teach  him  just  what  pressure  must  be  apphed 
under  given  conditions. 

DRIVING 

Simple  as  this  work  may  seem,  it  is  by  no  means  possible  for 
a  novice  to  perform  it  with  success  until  he  has  learned  three 
very  important  things,  viz.:  To  hold  the  reins  moderately  taut 
and  not  allow  them  to  hang  low  down  between  the  animals; 
to  speak  to  the  animals  in  clear,  distinct  tones  little  louder  than 
those  used  in  addressing  a  person;  and  to  use  the  brake  when 
necessary. 

Customarily  the  reins,  or  "  fines,"  are  held  in  the  left  hand  and 


168   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

the  brake  is  operated  with  the  right.  The  hne  to  the  off  horse 
passes  through  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  as  the  hand 
is  held  pahn  downward  and  the  other  Une  enters  the  hand  from 
the  opposite  side,  the  two  crossing  beneath  the  pahn.  Holding 
them  in  this  manner  permits  the  driver  to  turn  his  team  easily 
with  a  lateral  movement  of  the  wrist.  It  may  be  necessary 
in  some  instances  to  allow  one  Hne  to  shp  through  the  hand, 
especially  when  short,  sharp  turns  are  made,  but  it  may  be 
replaced  immediately  afterward. 

The  checks  are  the  shorter  lengths  of  leather  that  buckle 
into  the  hne  and  work  across  to  the  bit  ring  of  the  opposite 
horse.  They  should  be  adjusted  in  such  a  manner  that  each 
animal  may  carry  its  head  straight  in  line  with  its  body  and 
in  a  natural  position. 

The  tones  used  in  addressing  the  team  should  be  moderately 
loud  and  very  clear  and  distinct.  Most  draft  animals  are  trained 
to  respond  to  certain  verbal  directions,  and  if  these  are  muttered 
indistinctly  or  issued  in  loud,  angry  tones  more  or  less  confusion 
to  the  animals  will  be  the  result.  Work  animals  in  many  rural 
districts  are  guided  almost  entirely  by  the  driver's  voice.  Thus 
he  calls  out  "  get  up  "  to  start  the  animal,  "  haw  "  to  turn  it 
to  the  left,  "  gee  "  to  turn  it  in  the  opposite  direction,  "  whoa  " 
to  stop  it,  and  issues  other  instructions  according  to  the  work 
being  done  and  to  the  manner  in  which  the  animal  has  been 
trained.  When  the  team  is  to  be  stopped  the  brake  should  be 
apphed  in  order  to  assist  in  checking  the  progress  of  the  load, 
and  if  the  team  is  to  be  left  standing  or  tied  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time  the  brake  should  be  left  firmly  set.  It  should 
also  be  apphed  when  the  team  is  stopped  for  a  short  rest  on  a 
steep  grade,  and  should  not  be  released  before  the  traces  have 
been  tightened  preparatory  to  starting.  If  released  sooner  it 
allows  the  load  to  start  backward  dovm.  the  grade,  and  this  re- 
quires a  much  greater  draft  to  start  forward  again  than  the 
motionless  load  would.  Frequent  short  intervals  of  rest  on 
grades  are  preferable  to  fewer  and  longer  ones  and  will  prove 
much  more  beneficial  to  the  team. 

Another  important  use  of  the  brake  is  checking  the  wagon  as 
it  crosses  short,  sharp  dips,  such  as  small  ravines  or  large  ruts. 
Many  drivers  disregard  these  short  grades  altogether,  but  the 
practice  is  to  be  strongly  condemned.  The  whole  secret  of  the 
proper  use  of  the  brake  hes  in  applying  it  whenever  it  will  pre- 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  169 

vent  the  whole  weight  of  the  load  from  jamming  suddenly  down 
against  the  center  ring  of  the  neck  yoke. 

The  regulation  freight  wagon,  designed  especiall}^  for  hauhng 
that  requii-es  the  use  of  two  or  more  pairs  of  animals,  usually 
has  the  brake  lever  on  the  near  side.  This  facilitates  its  use  by 
the  driver,  who  generally  rides  the  near-wheel  animal,  and  who 
operates  the  brake  by  means  of  a  rope  passed  back  to  the  lever 
from  the  saddle  horn.  Brake  levers  of  trailers  are  attached  to 
this  lever  in  a  similar  manner  and  all  are  operated  from  the 
saddle. 

The  animal  working  at  the  left  side  in  a  team  of  two  is  known 
as  the  "  lead,"  "  wheel,"  or  "  near  "  horse,  and  the  other  is 
the  "  off  "  horse.  Those  on  the  right  and  left  sides  in  the 
front  of  a  team  of  four  are  knowTi  respectively  as  the  "  off  leader" 
and  the  "  near  leader,"  and  such  a  team  is  known  as  a  "  four  " 
team  or  four  "  span  "  ^ 

A  "  six  "  team  includes  six  animals,  those  between  the  leaders 
and  wheel  horses  being  known  as  "  middles." 

An  "  eight  "  team  includes  eight  animals  and  consists,  from 
front  to  rear,  of  the  leaders,  the  "  first  "  and  "  second  "  middles, 
and  the  wheelers. 

A  "  spike "  team  includes  an  extra  animal  working  alone 
before  the  leaders,  such  an  animal  being  known  as  the  "  spike." 

A  six  team  hauling  a  wagon  and  one  trailer  is  knowTi  as  a 
"  two-six "  team.  A  second  trailer  makes  it  a  "  three-six." 
Thus  a  train  of  freighting  wagons  including  two  eight-teams  each 
hauling  two  trailers,  three  six-teams  each  hauling  one  trailer, 
and  a  four-team  without  a  trailer,  would  be  known  as  '*  two 
three-eights,  three  two-sixes,  and  a  four." 

Other  combinations  of  animals  and  wagons  are  designated 
according  to  the  number  of  each  in  an  outfit. 

When  using  a  team  of  more  than  four,  the  driver  usually 
rides  the  near  wheel  animal  and  guides  the  whole  team  by 
means  of  a  "  jerk  "  line  attached  to  the  bit  ring  of  the  near 
leader.  A  steady  pull  on  this  turns  the  leader  to  the  right,  while 
a  succession  of  shght  jerks,  usually  three  in  number,  turns  it 
in  an  opposite  direction.     Jerk  lines  can  be  used  only  on  animals 


1  The  term  "span"  is  visually  applied  to  a  pair  of  mules,  but  may  be, 
and  frequently  is,  applied  to  a  pair  of  mares.  Its  use  with  reference  to 
horses  is  limited. 


170   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

that  have  been  well  trained.     Poorly  trained  or  fractious  animals 
must  be  controlled  by  means  of  bits  and  lines. 

WOODS  WORK 

The  ranger  or  woodsman  may  find  it  necessary  to  cut  and 
hew  logs  for  cabins  or  bridges,  telephone  poles  may  be  needed, 
timber  and  brush  must  be  cut  out  along  roads  and  trails  or 
felled  in  case  of  fire,  fuel  must  be  secured,  and  numerous  other 
lines  of  similar  work  may  demand  his  attention.  It  is,  therefore, 
to  his  advantage  to  know  how  to  handle  certain  tools  involved, 
and  he  must  in  any  event  know  something  about  the  use  and 
care  of  an  ax. 

Axes. — Contrary  to  a  general  idea  held  by  inexperienced  per- 
sons, there  are  a  number  of  different  styles  of  axes,  each  espe- 
cially adapted  to  a  particular  use  and  many  unsuited  to  other 
uses.  Thus,  a  broadax,  constructed  for  hewing,  is  not  suited  to 
general  woods  work;  and  pole-axes,  designed  for  all-round  chop- 
ping, are  not  convenient  tools  to  use  for  hewing.  The  marking 
hatchet,  used  by  officers  of  the  Forest  Service  in  marking  certain 
timber  to  be  removed,  is  in  reaUty  a  fight  ax,  but  is  unsuited 
to  heavy  work.  A  general  description  of  a  number  of  different 
axes  is  given  merely  to  serve  as  an  outline  of  the  uses  to  which 
they  can  be  put  to  best  advantage. 

Pole-ax. — This  is  made  with  one  round-cornered  bit,  some- 
what longer  at  the  rear  than  in  front,  and  a  square  or  rounded 


Pole-ax. 


Pole-ax  handle. 
Fig.  156. 


pole,  and  is  fitted  with  a  curved  handle,  which  can  be  inserted 
in  the  eye  in  only  one  way.  See  Fig.  156.  The  pole  may,  in 
emergencies,  bf  used  in  driving  pegs  or  stakes,  but  the  curved 


GENERAL  FIELD    WORK 


171 


handle,  inverted  at  such  times,  makes  the  ax  a  very  inconvenient 
tool  to  use. 

Pole-axes  may  be  secured  upon  requisition  for  official  work. 
For  general  use  they  should  be  fitted  with  a  36-inch  handle, 
and  should  not  exceed  four  pounds  in  weight.  Their  cost,  in- 
cluding the  handle,  varies  from  $1.25  to  $1.50. 

Double-bitted  Ax. — Instead  of  having  a  square  or  rounded 
pole  this  ax  bears  two  bits,  both  in  Hne  with  the  handle,  and 
the  latter,  unhke  that  of  a  pole-ax,  is  straight  with  a  swell  at 
the  end,  and  is  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  used  with  equal 
facility  with  either  bit.  See  Fig.  157.  Woodsmen  diiTer  widely 
in  their  opinions  as  to  what  constitutes  the  best  all-round  ax, 


Double-bitted  ax. 


Handle  for  double-bitted  ax 
Fig.  157. 


but  for  aU  purposes  work  in  the  woods  a  four-pound  double- 
bitted  ax  with  36-inch  handle  is  recommended.  The  flat  side  of 
this  may  be  used  in  driving  stakes  or  tent  pegs;  one  bit  may  be 
used  exclusively  for  such  work  as  may  cause  it  to  be  thrust 
intentionally  or  accidentally  into  the  ground;  and  the  other  bit 
may  be  kept  sharp  for  felhng  or  for  other  regular  field  chopping. 
If  such  an  ax  can  not  be  secured  by  requisition  it  can  be  pur- 
chased for  about  the  same  price  as  a  pole-ax. 

Broadax. — This  is  made  especially  for  hewing.  It  has  an 
extra  wide  bit,  with  ahnost  square  corners,  and  the  bit  is  beveled 
only  on  one  side.  The  eye  is  so  constructed  as  to  permit  the 
insertion  of  the  handle  from  either  side,  thus  providing  for  the 
use  of  the  ax  by  either  a  right-  or  a  left-handed  person.     On  ac- 


172   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

count  of  the  single  bevel  it  is  unfit  for  any  use  except  hewing.     See 
Fig.  158. 

Handax. — This   is  simply  a  light  broadax   designed  for  use 
in  one  hand.     Ordinarily  any  hewing  that  can  be  done  with  a 


'"■  I    1^    I  Ik 


Broadax. 


Broadax  handle. 
Fig.  158. 


handax  can  be  accompUshed  with  very  Httle  more  labor  with 
a  common  pole-ax  or  a  double-bitted  ax.  Then-  inclusion  m  a 
camp  outfit  is  not  recommended.     See  Fig.  159. 


Fig.  159. — Handax. 


Fig.  160. — Shingling 
or  lathing  hatchet. 


Marking  Hatchet. — This  is  a  fight,  speciaUy  constructed  ax 
supphed  the  field  man  for  use  in  marking  timber  that  is  to  be 
feUed  or  removed.  The  pole  bears  the  raised  letters  US,  which 
are  used  in  stamping  Government  timber,  and  the  corners  of  the 
bit  are  somewhat  more  angular  than  those  of  the  regulation  pole- 


GENERAL  FIELD    WORK  173 

ax.  Two  lengths  of  handles  are  furnished,  and  for  extensile 
marking  or  blazing  the  longer  length  is  recommended.  Marking 
hatchets  are  supphed  upon  requisition,  and  particular  care  must 
be  observed  not  to  lose  one,  since  it  might  be  utihzed  for  illegal 
purposes  if  found  and  used  by  an  unauthorized  person. 

Belt-ax. — This  is  a  very  smaU  ax  with  a  short  handle,  some- 
times folding,  and  designed  to  be  carried  at  the  belt  of  the  woods- 
man. It  can  be  used  only  in  very  light  work,  such  as  blazing 
trails,  lopping  off  small  branches,  or  trimming  out  brush.  On 
camping  trips  where  no  other  form  of  ax  is  available  a  belt-ax 
is  a  very  convenient  tool,  but  its  inclusion  in  a  camp  outfit 
under  any  other  conditions  is  not  recommended. 

Shingling  Hatchet. — This  is  shown  in  Fig.  160.  The  bit  is 
narrow,  the  front  straight,  the  pole  flat  and  usually  rough-sur- 
faced for  driving,  and  the  blade  is  notched  at  the  rear  side  for 
pulling  nails.  The  tool  is  of  Httle  use  other  than  for  the  work 
for  which  it  is  designed,  but  is  a  most  convenient  article  for  use 
in  shingling. 

Carpenter's  Adz. — In  reaUty  this  is  a  broadax  having  the  bit 
at  right  angles  to  the  handle.  It  is  a  particularly  convenient 
ax  for  hewing  the  upper  surface  of  timbers  as  the  operator 
stands  astride  of  or  faces  them.  It  is  practically  useless  for 
any  other  work.     It  costs  trom  $1.25  to  $2.00. 

Care  of  Axes. — Grinding. — The  manufacturer,  in  order  to  se- 
cure better  protection  of  his  goods  in  shipping,  puts  only  a  blunt 
edge  on  an  ax  and  does  not  expect  the  tool  to  be  used  before 


Adz.  Adz  handle. 

Fig.  161. 


it  has  been  properly  sharpened.  New  axes,  therefore,  can  not 
be  used  with  satisfaction  until  this  has  been  done.  The  ax 
should  never  be  ground  on  a  dry  stone,  since  this  will  not  only 
heat  it  and  have  a  more  or  less  detrimental  effect  on  the  temper, 
but  will  also  wear  or  break  the  stone  away  faster.  Contrary 
to  a  common  beUef  that  a  better  cutting  edge  may  be  obtained 
by  turning  the  stone  away  from  the  ax,  it  may  be  turned  in  either 


174   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

direction  with  equally  satisfactory  results  both  to  the  ax  and 
to  the  stone  so  long  as  the  former  is  not  held  at  an  angle  that 
forces  its  edge  deep  into  the  surface  of  the  latter.  The  ax  should 
be  held  against  the  stone  in  such  a  way  that  the  bevel  of  the 
bit  is  ground  back  evenly  and  uniformly,  leaving  the  shoulders 
in  the  same  relative  position  to  the  edge  as  they  were  before  the 
ax  was  ground;  otherwise  the  edge  will  be  left  either  too  blunt 
or  too  thin.  In  the  former  case  extra  force  must  be  applied 
to  make  the  edge  enter  a  timber;  in  the  latter  the  edge  will  bend 
or  chip  away  and  break. 

Whetting. — This  is  the  finishing  operation  in  sharpening.  It 
can  best  be  done  by  the  use  of  a  small  stone  which  can  be  rubbed 
against  the  bit  rather  than  the  bit  against  it.  The  object  of 
whetting  the  bit  is  to  remove  any  rough  or  "  feather  "  edges 
that  may  have  been  produced  by  grinding.  If  such  edges  are 
left  on  the  bit  they  will  interfere  seriously  with  chopping. 

Filing. — It  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  field  man's 
supply  of  tools  does  not  include  either  grindstone  or  whetstone, 
and  as  a  result  he  is  forced  to  use  a  file  for  a  substitute.  Much 
needless  muscular  effort  will  be  avoided  if  the  field  man  remem- 
bers that  a  file  cuts  only  on  the  forward  thrust.  If  a  whetstone 
is  available  the  ax  may  be  whetted  after  fihng  the  same  as 
after  grinding  and  much  better  results  will  be  secured. 

Removal  of  Broken  Handles. — The  wedge  in  the  end  of  the 
handle  should,  if  possible,  be  withdrawn  and  the  handle  then 
puUed  backward  out  of  the  eye;  but  if  the  wedge  can  not  be 
removed  then  the  handle  should  be  cut  or  sawed  off  close  up 
against  the  ax  and  the  portion  left  in  the  eye  driven  forward. 
The  wedge  will  prevent  it  from  being  driven  backward.  If  it 
can  be  driven  neither  way,  then,  if  a  brace  and  bit  can  be  secured, 
several  holes  may  be  bored  through  it  and  the  sections  split  out 
one  at  a  time.  In  an  emergency  it  may  even  be  burned  out  by 
placing  the  ax  in  a  fire,  but  this  will  prove  injiu-ious  to  the  temper 
of  the  ax  and  should  be  resorted  to  only  as  a  last  resource. 

Making  New  Handles. — These  should  be  of  sound,  seasoned, 
heart  white  oak  (Quercus  alba),  post-oak  (Q.  minor),  or  hickory 
{Hicoria  ovata  or  alba).  Sound  sapwood  of  any  of  these  is  also 
good,  but  the  idea  that  sound  hickory  heartwood  is  not  as  strong 
as  the  sapwood  is  erroneous.  Such  timber  should  be  straight- 
grained  and  free  from  knots,  cracks,  and  season  checks. 

The  broken  handle,  temporarily  reassembled,  may  be  used  as 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  175 

a  pattern  by  which  to  mark  off  the  new  handle.  The  latter  is 
then  roughly  hewn  out,  dressed  down  with  a  pocket-knife  or 
draw-shave,  and  finally  finished  with  glass  or  sandpaper.  The 
end  to  be  inserted  in  the  eye  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  fill  the 
eye  completely  before  being  wedged. 

Inserting  New  Handles. — It  is  very  important  that  this  opera- 
tion be  performed  with  greatest  care  if  the  ax  is  to  ''  hang  " 
properly.  The  bit  must  be  exactly  in  line  with  the  handle,  the 
blade  must  set  perpendicularly  to  the  curve,  and  the  rear  corner 
of  the  bit  must  not  set  too  far  back.  It  is  always  a  wise  pre- 
caution to  use  the  ax  in  hght  work  for  a  short  time  before  the 
handle  is  wedged  in  permanently.  Dry  hardwood  wedges  are 
preferable  to  iron  wedges. 

Chopping. — This  operation,  like  aU  others  involving  the  use  of 
a  certain  tool,  is  a  distinct  art  that  can  be  acquired  only  through 
extensive  practice,  and  there  will  be  no  attempt  made  here  to 
elucidate  it  except  as  to  the  superficial  points. 

It  may  be  performed  either  right-  or  left-handed.  In  the 
former  the  end  of  the  handle  is  grasped  in  the  left  hand,  the 
right  being  placed  approximately  half-way  down  the  handle, 
and  the  ax  is  s'^'ung  over  the  right  shoulder.  On  the  do-^-nward 
thrust,  the  force  is  about  equally  divided  between  the  pushing 
motion  of  the  right  hand  and  the  puUing  motion  of  the  left. 
In  left-handed  chopping  the  respective  positions  and  move- 
ments of  the  hands  and  arms  are  reversed,  and  the  ax  is  swung 
over  the  left  shoulder.  Considerable  practice  is  necessary  be- 
fore the  bit  of  the  ax  can  be  directed  in  every  instance  against 
a  desired  spot  on  a  timber,  and  even  after  that  ability  has  been 
acquired  there  remains  the  problem  of  tilting  the  ax  at  the 
proper  time  and  angle  required  to  dislodge  the  chip  and  throw 
it  out. 

A  very  common  mistake  made  by  novices  is  their  attempts 
to  cut  squarely  across  the  grain  of  a  timber.  Instead  of  direct- 
ing the  bit  exactly  across  the  grain  it  should  be  thrust  obHquely 
into  it,  unless  certain  conditions,  such  as  the  need  for  a  square- 
ended  timber,  for  instance,  prohibit  this. 

In  chopping  tlirough  a  timber  it  should  be  notched  from  one 
side  to  or  near  the  center,  the  notch  forming  an  angle  of  approxi- 
mately 45  degrees.  The  timber  is  then  rolled  over  and  a  second 
notch,  cut  in  such  a  manner  that  its  apex  wiU  meet  the  apex 
of  the  first,  is  made.     If  an  attempt  is  made  to  cut  through  a 


176   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

large  log  from  one  side  the  notch  will  necessarily  be  so  wide 
that  satisfactory  results  can  not  be  obtained. 

The  only  general  rule  for  cutting  squarely  across  the  grain  of 


rvjuuuw^ 


Diamond-tooth  saw. 


'^^^^^^^™^^wian»n^^ 


'jnr^J^ 


Perforated  lance-tooth  saw. 


Peg-tooth  saw. 


One-man  saw. 


Fig.  162. — Two-man  saw  handles. 

a  timber  is  followed  in  notching  a  tree  that  is  to  be  felled,  and 
even  in  that  case  the  grain  is  cut  diagonally  in  one  direction. 

Any  operation  with  an  ax  is  so  completely  governed  by  local 
ccmditions  that  only  actual  experience  can  dictate  exactly  what 
rules  to  follow. 

Splitting. — This  oper.ation  differs  from  chopping,  as  the  ^erm 
is  generally  used,  in  that  the  grain  of  a  timber  is  spUt  apart 
rather  than  severed. 

The  greatest  problem  that  novices  must  solve  is  in  keeping 
the  blade  of  an  ax  from  passing  clear  through  a  timber  and  into 
the  ground.  This  may  be  avoided,  however,  by  a  shght  tilt  of 
the  poll  to  one  side  immediately  after  the  bit  enters  the  timber. 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  177 

This  not  only  utilizes  the  grain  at  one  side  of  the  bit  as  a  ful- 
crum for  the  bit  to  act  on  against  that  of  the  other  side,  but 
it  also  serves  to  turn  the  blade  from  its  direct  course  through 
the  timber  and  thereby  prevents  it  from  sticking  fast. 

Tough,  gnarly  timber  that  cannot  be  spUt  through  the  center 
may  be  worked  up  by  "  slabbing."  This  consists  of  spUtting  off 
slabs  around  the  outer  portions  of  the  timber,  gradually  working 
in  toward  the  heart,  and  finally  reducing  it  to  such  a  diameter  as 
witi  permit  its  being  spUt  open.  Large  knots  may  be  spht  with- 
out difficulty  by  directing  a  tilting  blow  against  them  in  Hne 
with  the  grain  of  the  tree. 

Saws. — Saws  used  for  general  field  work  may  be  roughly 
classed  as  one-man  and  two-man  cross-cuts,  a  third  variety  for 
light  work  about  camp  and  other  such  places  being  the  "  buck  " 
saw.     For  hand-saws,  see  page  119. 

Two-man  saws  are  made  in  three  principal  styles,  all  of  which 
are  sho^^^l  in  Fig.  162,  and  which  are  known  as  "  Diamond 
Tooth,"  "  Perforated  Lance  Tooth,"  and  "  Peg  Tooth."  For 
any  ordinary  work  none  of  these  should  be  less  than  53^  feet  in 
length.  The  perforated  lance  tooth  variety  is  recommended  for 
field  use. 

This  same  variety  is  also  recommended  in  a  one-man  saw  for 
light  work  about  a  station.     It  will  be  found  especially  satis- 


FiG.  163. — Buck-saw. 

factory  in  cutting  fuel  wood,  and  is  recommended  in  preference 
to  the  common  buck-saw. 

Buck-saws  may  or  may  not  be  constructed  with  drag  teeth, 
but  if  such  a  saw  is  to  be  used  it  is  suggested  that  one  with 
drags  be  secured. 


178   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

The  one-man  and  the  two-man  cross-cut  saws  and  the  drag- 
tooth  buck-saw  all  cut  in  both  the  forward  and  backward  stroke. 

Sawing. — Neither  man  should  push  a  cross-cut  saw;  it  is 
constructed  in  such  a  w^ay  as  to  provide  for  cutting  when  it 
is  pulled,  but  it  is  too  Umber  to  be  pushed.  The  strokes  should 
be  full  and  the  whole  cutting  length  of  the  blade  should  be 
utilized.  Short  strokes,  not  wearing  upon  the  teeth  near  the 
ends  of  the  blade,  leave  them  so  long  and  thick  in  comparison 
with  the  teeth  that  are  continually  used  that  a  full  stroke  of 
the  blade  soon  becomes  impossible. 

Each  stroke  should  be  even  and  regular  and  no  extra  force 
should  be  directed  against  the  teeth  to  make  them  cut  faster; 
such  saws  are  so  constructed  that  their  own  weight  will  feed  the 
teeth  fast  enough  if  these  £.re  kept  in  good  condition. 

In  cutting  through  horizontal  timbers  both  handles  of  the 
saw  should  be  held  as  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  log  as  pos- 
sible, and  should  be  slightly  raised  at  the  outward  end  of  the 
stroke.  This  ehminates  stiff,  myielding  strokes,  the  cutting  edge 
of  the  saw  being  made  convex  in  order  to  provide  for  the  longitu- 
dinal rocking  motion  thus  produced. 

In  feUing  timber  with  a  cross-cut  saw  the  latter  is  of  course 
started  into  the  tree  approximately  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  in 
this  case  must  be  held  against  the  wood  with  sufficient  force 
to  produce  satisfactory  progress.  The  operators  may  grasp  their 
respective  handles  with  both  hands,  or  one  hand  may  grasp  the 
handle  and  the  other  the  back  of  the  saw  near  the  handle,  de- 
pending entirely  upon  personal  ideas  of  convenience. 

Filing. — Examination  of  a  saw  will  show  two  sets  of  teeth, 
viz.:  (1)  The  cutting  teeth,  and  (2)  the  drag  teeth  or  "  rakers." 
The  first  are  made  in  such  a  way  that  only  a  sharp  point  cuts, 
and  these  points  are  arranged  alternately  along  the  blade.  The 
second  are  forked,  have  square  bits,  and  are  not  provided  for 
cutting  purposes,  but  are  solely  for  use  in  dragging  or  raking 
out  the  chips  cut  away  by  the  teeth. 

In  fiUng  the  teeth  they  should  be  left  as  nearly  in  their  original 
shape  as  possible,  a  very  common  failing  of  saw-filers  being  their 
propensity  to  cut  away,  or  "  dub  off,"  the  points  without  fifing 
back  the  shoulders;  this  results  in  blunt  teeth  that  wiU  not  cut 
as  clean  or  as  fast  as  long,  tapering  teeth. 

Particular  care  must  be  observed  to  have  the  teeth  all  the 
same  length  after  the  saw  has  been  filed;   if  some  are  left  longer 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  179 

than  the  others  the  saw  will  jump  or  hang,  feed  to  one  side,  or 
otherwise  prove  disagreeable  to  work  with. 

Rakers  should  be  left  sHghtly  shorter  than  the  teeth,  or  they 
will  prevent  the  latter  from  entering  the  wood  and  a  rough, 
jerking  motion  in  sawing  will  be  the  result.  They  should  be 
left  short  enough  so  that  when  the  sawyer  looks  along  the  edge 
of  the  blade  he  will  observe  a  shallow  groove,  the  ends  of  the  rakers 
forming  its  bottom,  and  the  short  sides  of  the  teeth  its  sides. 
This  difference  in  length  between  the  teeth  and  rakers  should 
not  exceed  ^/ei-inch  nor  be  less  than  ^/loo-inch,  depending  upon 
the  nature  of  the  wood  to  be  cut,  softer  woods  of  course  per- 
mitting the  length  of  shorter  rakers. 

If  no  vise  is  available  in  fihng,  a  stump  may  be  sawed  into 
from  the  top  and  the  saw  held  in  the  cut,  teeth  upward.  After 
all  teeth  on  one  side  have  been  filed  the  saw  is  reversed  and  the 
remaining  teeth  a.,-e  filed;  this  will  be  much  more  convenient  than 
trying  to  file  each  tooth  of  both  sides  as  the  saw  is  passed  through 
the  cut.  .'^ter  the  teeth  have  all  been  carefully  "  jointed,"  or 
filed  to  the  same  length,  the  rakers  are  next  sharpened  and  filed 
down  to  the  proper  length,  care  being  taken  to  see  that  they 
are  all  the  same. 

Setting. — This  is  necessary  in  order  to  allow  for  a  kerf  wide 
enough  for  the  blade  of  the  saw  to  pass  through  without  binding, 
and  is  especially  necessary  when  green  or  very  soft  timber  is  to 
be  cut;  a  much  narrower  set  is  sufficient  for  hard  timber  through 
which  the  saw  passes  slowly. 

The  operation  of  setting  a  saw  properly  calls  for  considerable 
skill  unless  the  woodsman  has  access  to  a  regulation  saw  set 
made  especially  for  the  purpose;  in  such  a  case  all  that  need 
be  done  is  to  regulate  the  set  and  then  operate  on  each  tooth. 

But  if  no  set  is  available  the  saw  may  be  laid  flat  on  a  stump, 
and  all  the  points  along  one  side  of  the  blade  may  be  bent  sHghtly 
outward  by  being  tapped  with  some  iron  instrument.  When 
the  points  along  one  side  have  been  thus  treated,  the  blade  is 
turned  over  and  the  other  teeth  are  given  similar  treatment. 
The  chief  disadvantage  of  this  method  of  setting  is  the  utter 
impossibihty  of  directing  the  same  amount  of  force  against  each 
tooth,  thus  leaving  some  with  more  set  than  others. 

Rakers  are  never  set. 

Wedges. — These  are  used  in  hastening  or  directing  the  felHng 
of  timber,  in  refieving  a  saw  of  the  pressure  from  the  sides  of 


180   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

the  kerf,  in  splitting  or  otherwise  opening  timbers,  and  forcing 
back  the  sides  of  the  kerf  when  a  saw  is  to  be  removed.  There 
are  of  course  numerous  other  uses  to  which  wedges  may  be  put, 
but  these  are  the  principal  ones. 

Wedges  to  be  driven  into  kerfs  where  severe  binding  has  oc- 
curred should  not  be  struck  a  sharp  blow  at  first;  if  this  is  done 
they  are  quite  likely  to  rebound.     SUght  taps  should  be  delivered 


Fig.  164.— Wedges. 

until  they  have  been  firmly  set  in  the  kerf,  after  which  more 
vigorous  blows  may  be  struck. 

If  they  prove  to  be  too  small  or  too  thin  for  the  sphtting  of 
aeavy  timbers,  larger  wooden  wedges,  known  as  "  gluts,"  may 


RouQd  Bill 

Socket  peavy. 


Fig.  165. 


Canthook. 


be  used  to  insert  beside  them.  These,  too,  may  rebound  if 
struck  too  hard  at  first.  They  should  be  of  very  hard  wood, 
and  should  have  the  large  end  rounded  off  to  avoid  sphtting; 
ragged  edges  should  be  trimmed  away. 

ESTIMATING  TIMBER 

So  many  influencing  factors  enter  into  this  line  of  work  that 
a  rather  formidable  problem  is  presented.     The  varieties  and 


GENERA.L   FIELD    WORK  181 

sizes  of  timber,  its  condition  and  quality  as  affected  by  alti- 
tude and  latitude  and  general  climatic  conditions,  its  accessi- 
bility by  wagon  or  otherwise,  its  distance  from  market,  the 
probable  effect  on  other  timber  that  its  removal  may  have,  and 
numerous  other  points  involved,  must  all  be  given  due  con- 
sideration by  the  estimator  and  included  in  his  reports.  It  is 
therefore  obvious  that  to  be  a  good  estimator  a  field  man  must 
be  a  very  close  observer  and  must  have  good  judgment  and 
active  perceptive  powers. 

Methods  of  estimating  timber  vary  in  different  locahties. 
Deductions  for  defects  may  be  made  from  an  ocular  estimate; 
a  certain  number  of  average  trees  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for 
compiUng  an  estimate  on  a  given  tract;  or  strips  may  be  run 
through  a  country,  estimates  made  to  a  certain  distance  either 
side  of  the  center  line,  and  the  final  report  based  on  data  thus 
secured.  Local  conditions  are  largely  responsible  for  the  dif- 
ferent methods. 

For  example:  Owing  to  the  varieties  of  woods  found  on  the 
same  areas  in  the  Arkansas  forests,  two  men  have  worked  to- 
gether, one  running  the  compass,  pacing  distances,  and  mapping 
the  country,  the  other  securing  an  estimate  of  the  timber  to  a 
given  distance  either  side  of  the  fine  followed  by  the  compass 
man.  Ordinarily  these  lines  were  run  through  the  center  of 
each  forty-acre  tract  and  estimates  were  made  to  a  point  two  rods 
away  on  either  side.  The  area  thus  actually  considered  em- 
braced two  acres,  or  5%,  of  the  whole  forty,  and  reports  for  the 
forty  were  based  on  the  data  so  secured.  Observations  of  poles, 
seedhngs,  and  saplings  were  taken  at  given  points  along  the 
hne  and  covered  given  areas. 

Reconnoissance  men  work  alone,  however,  where  timber  oc- 
curs in  sohd  stands,  each  man  doing  his  o^n  pacing,  running 
his  own  lines,  and  making  his  own  maps.  Forty-acre  tracts 
may  be  crossed  tw^ce  if  the  density  of  the  stand  demands  it. 

A  hne  through  a  forty  is  not  run  at  random,  as  may  be  sup- 
posed, but  is  started  and  run  from  a  regularly  established  point. 
Temporary  base  fines  are  estabhshed  in  unsurvej^ed  country, 
and  corners  are  set  along  these  at  intervals  of  80  rods  and  at 
points  which  bring  them  at  the  middle  of  the  forty  fines.  Such 
corners  are  only  temporary  in  nature  and  are  marked  usually 
by  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  and  scribed  or  numbered  as 
desired.     The  base  lines  are  started  from  some  known  corner 


182   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

in  a  regular  survey,  as  shown  in  Fig.  166,  and  are  run  in  any 
direction  the  work  may  demand,  usually  however  due  north 
and  south  or  east  and  west. 

The  cruiser  starts  at  one  of  these  temporary  corners  and  paces 


Established 
1^  Corner 


1 

i 

1              1 
!                ! 

-T 

1 

1 

i  - 

j                         i 

Bkse  Line  of  Teinporary 

Comers 

1 
I 

1           t\p 
III 

.___.L--il-- 

1 
_l._ __. 

1 

1 

1 

1                1 

1^  Theoretical  ^ection  Line 

L 

Surveyed 
Section 


Fig.  166. 


the  distance  from  there  to  the  center  of  the  forty  he  is  to  "  work." 
From  there  he  runs  through  the  middle  of  each  succeeding  forty 
as  shown  in  Fig.  167,  the  arrows  indicating  his  line  of  travel. 
He  is  expected  to  check  his  distances  on  section  or  quarter 
corners  when  he  is  working  in  surveyed   territory,  and   thereby 


Finish  Cheolc 


\ 


^ 


X 


Checlc  Cbecli 


Slarting  Point       Chctk 


-^ 


finUb 


5 


a 


^  Check 


Fig.  167. 


enable  himseK  to  rectify  any  errors  in  pacing  that  may  have 
occurred.  A  Httle  experience  will  soon  make  his  work  quite 
accurate  and  he  will  be  able  to  check  within  a  few  rods  of  the 
corners. 

In  timber  to  be  estimated,  particular  attention  must  be  given 


GENERAL   FIELD   WORK  183 

to  all  defects.  These  include,  among  others,  spike  tops,  cat 
faces,  frost  cracks,  crooked  trunks,  rotten  limb  stubs,  holes, 
large  or  rotten  knots,  burned,  rotten,  or  swelled  butts,  and  other 
indications  may  appear  which  show  a  tree  to  be  unsound. 

There  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule  that  can  be  followed  in  deter- 
mining just  what  constitutes  a  defect  in  standing  timber,  and 
the  cruiser  is  therefore  compelled  to  rely  upon  his  own  judgment 
and  make  his  reports  accordingly.  His  best  and  quickest  method 
of  securing  a  practical  knowledge  of  defects  is  to  follow^  defective 
logs  through  the  mill  and  observe  the  internal  condition  of  each 
one  as  it  is  opened  up  by  the  saw. 

FELLING  TIMBER 

This  begins  after  aU  prehminary  estimates  and  other  arrange- 
ments for  a  timber  sale  have  been  completed,  and  while  it  may 
not  appear  to  be  an  important  operation,  it  is,  in  fact,  one  which, 
unless  it  is  carried  on  properly,  may  result  in  the  sale  being 
closed.  It  is  imperative  therefore  that  the  field  man  in  charge 
of  the  sale  be  famihar  with  what  constitutes  proper  and  improper 
felling. 

If  a  tree's  exterior  condition  is  such  as  to  preclude  aU  doubt 
of  a  worthless  interior  it  should  be  left  standing  unless  the  con- 
tract specifically  states  that  such  material  must  be  removed  or 
at  least  felled.  In  most  Government  sales  the  contract  em- 
braces a  clause  providing  for  the  removal  or  felling  of  any  timber 
that  may  present  a  fire  menace  or  which  may  result  in  damage 
to  other  timber  if  left  standing. 

One  precaution  which  the  field  man  should  observe  in  his 
movements  about  the  sale  area  where  felUng  is  in  progress  is  to 
be  on  the  lookout  for  large  Umbs  left  hanging  in  other  trees  and 
known  as  "  fool  Idllers."  Such  limbs  may  faU  at  any,  time  and 
it  is  never  wise  to  work  beneath  them. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  felling  is  the  direction  in 
which  the  tree  is  to  be  thro\\Ti.  If  it  is  straight  and  the  heavy 
top  branches  are  evenly  distributed  around  the  stem,  the  ground 
is  level,  no  strong  wind  is  blowing,  transportation  facilities  are 
equally  good  from  any  direction,  other  timber  will  not  be  dam- 
aged and  other  conditions  permit,  then  it  may  as  w^ell  be  felled 
in  one  direction  as  another.  If  it  leans  as  shown  in  Fig.  168, 
it  should  be  felled  if  possible  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 


184        HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

of  inclination.     This  eliminates  to  a  degree  the  possibiHty  of  a 
broken  or  split  stem  as  shown  in  the  same  figure. 

If  circumstances  prevent  it  from  being  felled  in  such  a  manner 


Method  of  notching  and  sawing  Stem  spUt  as  result  of 

leaning  tree.  improper  notching. 

Fig.  168. 


it  should  be  notched  deeply  on  the  side  to  which  it  leans.  The 
saw  should  be  started  in  on  the  opposite  side  at  a  point  from 
2  to  4  inches  lower  than  the  base  of  the  notch;  if  started  in 
above  the  notch  the  stem  is  much  more  apt  to  split.  When 
spUtting  does  occur,  and  the  shattered  butt  is  held  high  in  the 
air,  the  workmen  should  retire  in  a  hne  at  right  angles  to  the 
stem  rather  than  backward  from  it.  After  precautions  have 
been  taken  to  see  that  the  stem  will  not  slip  sidewise  from  the 
stump  nor  "  kick  "  backward  over  it,  the  stump  should  be  cut 
through  from  one  side  and  the  stem  allowed  to  tip  to  that  side. 
This  operation  is  a  dangerous  one,  as  there  is  always  a  possibility 
of  the  crumpled  branches  in  the  top  forcing  the  stem  backward 
when  the  stump  is  cut  through. 

Double  trees,  growing  together  at  a  point  sufficiently  high  to 
prevent  them  from  sphtting  apart  when  felled,  should  be  thro-^Ti 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  169.  If  it  is  apparent  that  they  will  split 
apart  as  soon  as  one  is  cut  through,  they  may  be  felled  away 
from  each  other. 

A  tree  lodged  in  another  as  showii  in  Fig.  170  may  be  thrown 


GENERAL   FIELD   WORK 


185 


down  by  felling  the  supporting  tree  at  right  angles  to  it.     A 
close  watch  should  be  maintained  during  this  operation  to  see 

that  pressure  of  the  lodged 
tree  does  not  cause  the  other 
to  fall  sooner  or  in  another 
direction  than  that  desired. 
Felling  timber  across  young 
gi'owth  and  breaking  it  down 
should  not  be  permitted,  ex- 
cept, of  course,  where  dense 


Fig.  169. — Notch  for  felling  double 
trees. 


Fig.  170. — Lodged  tree. 


f=1 


stands  of  j^oung  growth  can  not  be  avoided.  Particular  atten- 
tion is  given  to  this  point  in  all  Government  sales,  and  when  such 
felling  occm-s  after  one  or  two  warnings  from  the  officer  in 
charge  of  the  sale  it  may  be  considered  sufficient  cause  for 
prohibiting  further  operations  in  the  sale. 

Refuse  resulting  from  trimming  and  other 
operations  must  be  piled  compactly  or  else  scat- 
tered, depending  upon  the  terms  of  the  contract. 
High  stumps,  as  shown  in  Fig.  171,  must  also 
be  avoided,  the  stump  height  usually  being  speci- 
fied in  the  contract.  Certain  local  conditions, 
such  as  short,  scrubby  timber  with  large,  heavy  Fig.  171. 
tops  or  defective  trunks  resulting  from  burns, 
may  justify  a  deviation  from  certain  fixed  rules,  but  this  should 
never  be  done  without  the  approval  of  the  proper  authorities. 

Another  practice  to  be  forbidden  is  felling  trees  across  large 
logs,  stumps,  or  rocks  and  shattering  them  until  they  are  no 
longer  merchantabJe. 


^ 


186   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Still  another  great  loss  may  occur  when  trees  are  felled  in  such 
a  position  that  the  logs  can  not  be  hauled  out  without  great 
expense.     These  points  are  all  covered,  however,  in  the  contract, 


Felled  on  a  Limb 

Fig.  172. 


and  they  should  receive  the  closest  attention  from  the  man  in 
charge  of  the  sale. 

BUCKING  LOGS 

Improper  bucking  is  responsible  for  one  of  the  greatest  losses 
in  the  lumbering  industry.  Crooked  logs  especially  present 
excellent  opportunities  for  careless  buckers  to  waste  an  entire 
tree  when  one  or  more  logs  might,  with  proper  bucking,  be 
secured.  If  a  tree  is  bucked  at  the  16-foot  length  as  shown  in 
Fig.  173,  there  is  a  25%  loss,  all  that  portion  of  the  log  down 


to  the  12-foot  length  being  total  waste.  If  the  same  tree  is 
bucked  at  the  12-  and  20-foot  lengths  two  good  logs  may  be 
secured  and  practically  all  the  tree  utihzed. 

In  Fig.  174,  instead  of  cutting  a  butt  log  16  or  18  feet  long, 
losing  the  2  or  4  feet  in  the  crotch  and  going  to  the  unnecessary 
trouble  of  cutting  the  two  large  Umbs  at  24  feet,  and  again  at 
36  feet,  it  would  be  much  more  profitable  to  cut  a  12-foot  butt 


GENERAL    FIELD    WORK 


187 


log,  then  cut  the  crotch  at  24  feet  and  the  branches  at  36  feet, 
and  thus  secure  four  straight  12-foot  logs.  The  ends  of  a  few 
planks  in  the  middle  log  might  possibly  be  damaged,  but  the 
loss  thus  sustained  would  be  much  less  than  if  the  tree  were 
bucked  after  the  first  method. 

Fig.  175  represents  loss  in  a  top.  The  top  log  would  provide 
enough  sound  lumber  to  make  its  removal  from  the  woods 
profitable. 

Another  waste  occurs  where  2,  4,  or  6  feet  of  sound  log  are 
left  in  a  top  merely  because  certain  log  lengths  are  desired. 


Fig.  176. 


Thus,  in  Fig.  176,  a  16-foot  log  is  secured  and  a  4-foot  length 
wasted.  One  20-foot  or  two  10-foot  logs  would  have  resulted 
in  practically  no  waste. 

In  Fig.   177  more  than  a  foot  of  sound  log  is  wasted.     This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  lumber  is  always  cut  in  lengths  of  even 


Fig.  178. 


Fig.  177. 


feet  unless  a  special  order  calls  for  other  lengths.  Consequently 
the  lumber  in  this  log  must  all  be  cut  back  to  10  feet  in  length, 
while  the  log  might  have  been  cut  3  or  4  inches  over  12  feet  in 
length  and  made  into  12-foot  lumber. 


188        HANDBOOK    FOR    RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 


The  11-foot  log  shown  in  Fig.  177  must  also  be  made  into 
10-foot  lumber.     In  Fig.  178  all  of  A  is  lost. 

A  trimming  allowance  of  from  3  to  4  inches  is  usually  allowed 

on  all  logs,  although  in 
Forest  Service  sales  the 
allowance  is  usually  speci- 
fied as  not  more  than  3 
inches. 


LOG  SCALING 

So     many      influencing 
factors  enter  into  the  prob- 


(For  large 
timber.) 


Fig.  179. — Log  rules. 

lem  of  formulating  a  table  by  which  the  board  feet  contents  of  an 
unsawed  log  may  be  determined  that  there  are  a  number 
of  scales  or  rules  used.  Thus,  the  Scribner,  among  the  oldest, 
may  be  used  in  one  locality;  the  Doyle  may  be  found  in  com- 
mon use  in  another;  the  Doyle-Scribner  is  used  in  another;  and 
the  Champlain,  International,  Maine,  or  Cumberland  River,  or 
any  one  of  thirty  or  forty  others,  may  be  used  in  other  sections. 
Many  smaU  operators,  particularly  in  the  South,  use  no  scale 
whatever,  but  measure  each  piece  of  lumber  as  it  leaves  the 
mill;  others,  operating  solely  for  local  trade,  retain  as  their  pay 
for  sawing  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  pieces  sawed,  this  method 
being  kno\vn  as  "  sawing  on  shares."  Official  instructions  issued 
to  scalers  are  substantially  as  follow: 

All  scahng  shall  be  done  with  the  Scribner  Decimal  "  C  " 
rule.i  Each  log  or  piece,  unless  cuUed,  shall  be  scaled,  num- 
bered, branded  "  U.  S.,"  and  recorded  separately. 


1  For  Log  Rules,  see  p.  369,  Appendix. 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  189 

Standard  ties  (8  feet  long,  6  inches  thick,  and  8  inches  wide) 
may  be  sold  either  by  the  tie  or  by  the  thousand  board  feet, 
allowing  thirty  ties  to  the  thousand  feet.  Ties  of  other  dimen- 
sions may  be  sold  Ukewise,  except  that  a  greater  or  smaller 
number,  according  to  their  size,  must  be  allowed  to  the 
thousand  feet. 

Posts,  poles,  piles,  stulls,  etc.,  may  be  sold  by  the  Unear  foot, 
by  board  measure,  or  by  the  piece,  as  stipulated  in  the  contract. 
Each  one  shall  be  branded. 

Wood  sold  by  the  cord  should  be  branded  both  at  the  top 
and  bottom  of  a  pile,  and  a  dozen  or  more  other  pieces  in  the 
pile  also  branded.  "  Merchantable  "  logs  are  those  from  which 
one-third  or  more  of  their  contents  as  shown  by  the  scale  may 
be  made  into  sound  material.  This  term  includes  such  material 
as  will  not  grade  lower  than  No.  3  Common  as  determined  by 
the  grading  rules  of  the  locahty  in  which  the  timber  is  cut. 
Thus  a  log  containing  240  board  feet  full  measure  is  not  "  mer- 
chantable "  if  less  than  80  feet  can  be  made  into  "  sound " 
material,  but  is  merchantable  if  80  feet  or  more  can  be  utiKzed 
as  "  sound  "  material. 

All  logs  exceeding  16  feet  in  length  are  to  be  scaled  as  two  or 
more  logs  as  nearly  the  same  length  as  possible.  This  rule  is 
departed  from  in  Alaska  and  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains  in  Oregon  and  Washington,  where  logs  from  32  to 
64  feet,  inclusive,  are  to  be  scaled  in  a  similar  manner.  Such 
scaling  requires  the  operator  to  exercise  his  owti  judgment  in 
allowing  for  increase  in  diameter  of  the  lower  logs.  In 
doing    this    he    can    hardly    follow    any    set    rule    although    a 


Fig.  180. — Board  rule 

table    of    such     increase     wull    be    suppHed     for    his     general 
guidance. 

Every  fifth  or  sixth  log  shall  be  measured  to  ascertain  whether 
or  not  the  trimming  allowance  is  being  exceeded.  In  aggra- 
vated cases  violation  of  this  term  of  the  contract  shall  be  con- 
sidered sufficient  cause  for  cancelation  of  the  contract.     Other- 


199   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

wise  the  scaler  will  charge  for  two  extra  feet  of  log  and  this  will 
be  recorded  as  a  "  penalty  "  scale.  Measurements  of  the  diam- 
eter are  taken  inside  the  bark  at  the  small  end  of  the  log.  If 
that  end  is  elliptical  rather  than  round  an  average  diameter  will 
be  taken  by  securing  a  measurement  at  right  angles  across  the 
short  diameter  and  averaging  the  two.  In  all  cases  diameters 
are  to  be  rounded  off  to  the  nearest  inch. 

Proper  allowance  will  be  made  for  all  defects  that  will  damage 
a  log,  but  no  definite  rule  can  be  followed.     The  only  general 


V 


Cut  out 


rule  that  can  be  followed  successfully  is  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of    board    feet  in-  ) 

eluded  in  the  defect  and  deduct  this  from 
the  full  scale.  The  most  common 
defects  are:  HoUows,  cracks,  shake, 
dote,  circular-,  uniform-  and  side- 
rot,  dead,  soft,  or  blue  sap,  seams, 
sweeps,  and  crotches.  If  a  hollow 
extends  the  entire  length  of  a  log 
the  scaler  should  deduct  from  the 
fuU   scale    as    many    board    feet    as  Rot 

may  be  contained  in  a  square   tim-  Fig.  18 1 

ber  equal  in  diameter  to  the  larger 

end  of  the  hoUow  and  as  long  as  the  log.  Shorter  hollows 
should  be  allowed  for  accordingly.  Uniform  rot,  which 
extends    completely   through   a   log    from   end  to  end,  should 


GENERAL   FIELD   WORK 


191 


be  allowed  for  the  same  as  a  hollow,  shorter  rot  deducted 
accordingly.  1 

When  cracks  and  shake  are  so  extensive  as  to  render  material 
''  misound,"  they  must  be  allowed  for  accordingly. 

Circular  and  side  rot  should  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner. 

Punk  knots  invariably  indicate  a  worthless  log.  If  the  latter 
were  sound  they  would  not  appear.  They  should  not,  however, 
be  confused  with  pitch  knots,  as  the  latter  seldom  damage  a  log 
to  any  great  extent  and  are  usually  removed  in  the  slab. 

Logs  having  dead,  soft,  or  blue  sap  should  be  scaled  inside 
such  sap.  Blue  sap  does  not  necessarily  lower  the  grade  of 
lumber,  but  always  lessens  its  market  value. 

Seams  should  be  treated  the  same  as  cracks  unless  they  are 
spu-al,  in  which  case  they  may  be  so  extensive  as  to  render  an 
entire  log  worthless.  Sweep,  or  curve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  182, 
demands  considerable  attention,  and  local  conditions  niust  ieter- 
mine  the  amount  to  be  deducted.     As  a  general  rule,  no  allow- 


FiG.  182. 


ance  should  be  made  for  the  defect  when  it  occurs  in  logs  ex- 
ceeding 16  feet  in  length.  It  is  agreed  in  the  contract  that  log 
lengths  will  be  varied  in  such  a 
way  as  to  permit  close  utiHza- 
tion.  Crotches  damage  a  log  in 
proportion  to  their  extent,  and 
result  in  gnarled,  cross-grained, 
brittle  lumber. 

Other  defects  may  appear  and 
the  scaler  must  always  be  on  the 
lookout  for  them.     He  should,   if 

possible,  devote  his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  defects  as  they 
appear  lq  logs  opened  at  the  mill. 

1  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  hollow  log  will  saw  out  less  lumber  than  a 
rotten  log  ha\ing  a  rot  equal  in  diameter  to  the  hollow  of  the  first. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  carriage  dogs  will  hold  fhe 
rotten  log  tmtil  practically  aU  the  soimd  material  can  be  cut  from 
around  the  rot,  while  the  hollow  log  can  not  be  held  after  the  hoUow 
is  reached.  The  walls  of  the  hollow  either  spUt  out  or  are  not  strong 
enough  for  the  dogs  to  hold  securely. 


Fig.  183. 


192   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

He  should  also  keep  a  set  of  grading  rules  where  they  may- 
be accessible  at  all  times.  A  close  study  of  these  and  of  what 
quahties  lumber  must  possess  to  be  classed  in  certain  grades 
will  enable  him  to  attain  a  gi-eater  degree  of  proficiency  in  mak- 
ing allowance  for  defects.  He  is  suppUed  with  blank  records, 
made  up  in  book  form,  which  permit  the  contents  of  one  hun- 
dred logs  to  be  recorded  on  each  double  page.  These  are  num- 
bered from  1  to  00  and  carry  a  column  in  which  to  enter  lengths. 
Spaces  are  provided  at  the  tops  of  the  pages  for  the  name  of 
the  purchaser,  the  date  of  the  sale,  the  description  of  the  area 
involved,  and  for  other  data  pertinent  to  the  sale.  Page  and 
grand  totals  are  provided  for  at  the  bottom,  and  there  is  a  sep- 
arate blank  space  for  the  officer's  signature  and  title.  These 
records  are  open  to  inspection  by  the  purchaser  only  in  the 
presence  of  the  Supervisor  or  a  District  officer. 

LAND   SURVEYS 

In  practically  all  of  the  numerous  fines  of  work  he  must 
handle  the  field  man  will  find  the  question  of  land  fines  involved, 
and  it  is  essential  that  he  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  at 
least  the  fundamental  principles  upon  which  land  surveys  are 
based.  A  detailed  treatise  on  the  subject  would  require  volumes, 
and  for  that  reason  only  the  most  important  points  wiU  be  dis- 
cussed here.  The  rectangular  system  of  surveys,  in  common 
use  in  this  country,  wiU  be  considered  first. 

Principal  Meridians. — These  are  north-and-south  fines  estab- 
Hshed  as  a  means  of  control  by  which  the  east  or  west  boundary 
fines  of  townships  may  be  determined.  Owing  to  the  curvature 
of  the  earth's  surface  and  to  the  fact  that  aU  such  fines,  if  ex- 
tended, would  converge  at  one  point  at  the  north,  east-and-west 
correction  lines  are  estabfished  at  certain  intervals  in  order  to 
efiminate  as  far  as  possible  the  otherwise  resultant  trapezoidal 
form  of  townships.     These  are  known  as  base  fines. 

Base  Lines. — These  are  started  at  given  points  and  are  run 
due  east  and  west.  They  serve  as  a  base  from  which  to  run 
base  lines  and  also  provide  increased  facfiities  for  the  proper 
description  or  location  of  lands. 

Standard  Parallels. — These  fines  are  run  east  and  west,  parallel 
with  base  fines,  at  intervals  of  24  miles,  and  serve  as  correction 
fines  for  range  boundaries.     Being  but  24  miles  apart,  they  pro- 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  193 

vide  for  the  elimination  of  practically  all  convergence  of  north- 
and-south  lines. 

Guide  Meridians. — These  are  run  north  from  standard  paral- 
lels at  intervals  of  24  miles,  close  on  the  next  parallel  north, 
and  thus  lay  the  country  off  in  theoretical  rectangles  24  miles 
square.  These  tracts  are  not,  of  course,  perfect  rectangles,  but 
converge  slightly  to  the  north.  To\\Tiship  boundaries  are  laid 
off  after  the  standard  parallels  and  guide  meridians  have  been 
established. 

Township  Lines. — These  are  east-and-west  lines,  6  miles  apart, 
and  mark  the  north  and  south  boundaries  of  townships.  The 
tract  lying  between  them  and  extending  from  one  guide  me- 
ridian to  the  next  is  known  as  a  "towTiship,"  and  is  numbered 
north  or  south  from  the  base  Une  from  which  a  given  survey 
is  made. 

Range  Lines. — Range  Unes  are  laid  off  after  the  towTiship  lines 
have  been  estabhshed.  They  mark  the  east  or  west  boundaries 
of  townships  and  the  6-mile  strip  of  country  between  them  is 
known  as  a  "range,"  and  is  numbered  east  or  west  from  the 
principal  meridian  from  which  the  survey  is  made.  The  estab- 
lishment of  township  and  range  lines  divides  the  country  into 
tracts  6  miles  square,  and  these  are  also  knowTi  as  "townships." 

Section  Lines. — Townships  are  next  divided  into  sections,  each 
of  which  is  as  nearly  1  mile  square  as  possible.  These  subdivi- 
sions are  made  by  east-and-west  and  north-and-south  hues  es- 
tablished at  intervals  of  1  mile,  thus  forming  thirty-six  sections 
to  the  township.  When  convergence  of  the  lines  prevents  the 
estabhshment  of  thirty-six  regular  mile-square  sections,  the  extra 
large  or  small  sections  are  thrown  to  the  north  and  west  sides 
of  the  township.  Instances  may,  but  seldom  do,  occur  where 
irregular  sections  may  be  laid  off  along  all  four  sides  of  the 
township. 

Section  Numbers. — Beginning  with  No.  1,  which  is  at  the 
northeast  corner  of  the  township,  the  series  proceeds  westward 
to  the  northwest  corner  of  the  township,  where  section  No.  6  is 
found.  No.  7  is  immediately  south  of  this,  and  the  series  then 
proceeds  eastward  to  No.  12,  which  is  south  of  No.  1.  No.  13 
is  south  of  12  and  18  is  south  of  7.  Section  19  is  south  of  18 
and  24  is  south  of  13.  Section  25  is  south  of  24,  30  is  south  of 
19,  and  36  is  south  of  25  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the  township. 

Section  Subdivisions. — A  system  of  subdivisions  has  been  de- 


194        HANDBOOK    FOR    RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

vised  whereby  tracts  of  less  than  a  section  may  be  described. 
Each  boundary  line  of  a  section  is  marked  at  the  center  with  a 
"  quarter  "  corner,  and  a  line  from  one  such  corner  to  the  one 
directly  opposite  divides  a  section  into  halves.  It  is  divided 
into  quarters  by  connecting  the  corners  on  the  other  sides. 
Quarter  sections  are  divided  in  a  similar  manner  into  "  quarter- 
quarter  "  sections.  These  may  be  divided  into  "  quarter-quar- 
ter-quarter  "  sections  and  these  into  "  quarter-quarter-quarter- 
quarter  "  sections,  each  of  which  contains  two  and  one-haK 
acres.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  so  long  as  its  boundary 
lines  coincide  with  those  made  possible  by  a  regular  survey  a 
very  small  tract  of  land  can  be  described  or  located. 

Land  Descriptions. — It  is  especially  important  that  the  field 
man  familiarize  himself  with  methods  used  in  describing  lands, 
and  as  the  subject  is  such  a  simple  one  he  should  have  no  trouble 
in  mastering  it. 

Sections. — The  first  thing  given  in  the  general  description  is 
the  exact  description  of  a  section  or  its  subdivisions.  Next 
comes  the  township  number,  north  or  south  of  a  base  line,  and 
the  range  number,  east  or  west  of  a  meridian,  follows.  Usually 
the  name  or  number  of  the  principal  meridian  or  base  line  is 
also  given. 

Thus  several  sections  might  be  described  as:  Sections  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  and  6  (or  Sections  1-6,  inclusive),  TowTiship  Twelve  North, 
Range  One  East,  of  a  certain  meridian  and  base  line.  The 
abbreviated  form  of  this  description  would  be:  Sees.  1-6,  T. 
12  N.,  R.  1  E.,  etc. 

Half  Sections. — Three  hundred  and  twenty  acres,  embracing 
exactly  one-half  section,  might  be  described  as:  The  West  Half 
of  Section  One,  Township  Twelve  North,  Range  One  East  of 


^" 


Fig.  184. 


a  certain  meridian  and  base  line.  Abbreviated  it  would  read: 
W/2  Sec.  1,  T.  12  N.,  R.  1  E.,  etc.  See  Fig.  184.  If  located 
in  both  halves  of  the  section  it  might  read:  The  East  Half  of 
the  West  HaK  and  the  West  Half  of  the  East  HaK,  or  E/2 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK 


195 


W/2  and  W/2  E/2.  It  might  also  be  described  as:  The  East 
Half  of  the  Northwest  quarter,  the  East  Half  of  the  Southwest 
quarter,  the  West  HaK  of  the  Northeast  quarter,  and  the  West 
Half  of  the  Southeast  quarter.  Abbreviated:  E/2  NWV4;  E/2 
SW/4;   W/2  NE/4;    and  W/2  SE/4. 

Quarter  Sections. — One  hundred  and  sixty  acres  located  ex- 
actly in  one  regular  quarter-section  might  be  described:  The 
Northwest  quarter  of  a  given  section.  If  included  in  two  regular 
quarter-sections,  as  shown  in  Fig.  185,  it  might  read:  N/2  SW/4 


Nort 

mes 

k 

S/2 

NW/. 

n/2 

SW. 

_J 

^ 

' 

r 

~ 

TJt. 

^i: 

'"  f'l'  \ 

' 

N/2  SW/i 

Se74 

fe 

Fig.  185. 

and  S/2  NW/4.  The  same  acreage,  differently  located  would 
read:  W/2  NW/4  and  N/2  SW/4.  Lying  in  this  shape  it 
would  be  known  as  an  "  L."  If  it  should  embrace  N/2  SW/4, 
NW/4  SE/4,  and  SE/4  SW/4,  it  would  be  known  as  a  "  T." 
If  it  covered  NE/4  SW/4,  NW/4  SE/4,  and  S/2  SE/4,  it  would 
be  designated  as  a  "  Z." 

Quarter- Quarter  Sections. — These  embrace  an  area  of  forty 
acres  and  are  described  as  SW/4  SW/4,  or  otherwise  according 
to  the  actual  location. 

Quarter- Quarter- Quarter   Sections. — Such   subdivisions   em- 


lE^ 


4- 

r 

Fig.  186. 


Fig.  187. 


brace  ten-acre  tracts.     The  one  illustrated  in  Fig.   186  would 
be  described  as  SE/4  SW/4  NE/4. 

Quarter- Quarter- Quarter- Quarter  Sections. — These  tracts  in- 


196   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

elude  two  and  one-haK  acres,  and  if  laid  off  as  shown  in  Fig,  187 
would  be  described  as  SE/4  SW/4  NE/4  SW/4. 

Other  Descriptions. — One  hundred  and  sixty  acres  lying  in 
two  sections  of  the  same  township  and  range  as  shown  in  Fig. 
188  would  be  described  as:  S/2  NW/4,  Sec.  3  and  E/2  NE/4,  Sec. 
4,  T.  12  N.,  R.  1  E.     Eighty  acres,  located  in  two  sections,  in 


B 
O    i> 

i 'f^ 3 

M 


Fig.  188. 


the  same  range  but  in  different  townships,  as  in  Fig.  189,  would 
read:   SE/4  SE/4,  Sec.  34,  T.  il  N.,  and  NE/4  NE/4,  Sec.  3, 
T.  10  N.,  all  in  R.  1  E.     Two  hundred  acres,  located  in  different 
sections    and    in   different    townships    and 
ranges,  as  in  Fig.   190,  would  read:    W/2 
SW/4,  Sec.  31,  T.    11   N.,   R.   2  E;  SE/4 
SE/4,  Sec.  36,  T.  11  N.,  R.l  E;  NE/4  NE/4, 
Sec.  1,  T.  10  N.,  R.  1  E;  and  NW/4  NW/4, 
Sec.  6,  T.  10  N.,  R.  2  E.     If  the  township 
Hne  in  Fig.  190  should  be  a  base  line  and 
the  range  Une  a  principal    meridian,    then 
the  land  in  sections  31   and  36  would  be 
described  as  east    and    west,   respectively, 
of  the  meridian,  and  north  of  the  base  line, 
while  that  in  sections   6   and    1    would   be 
described  as  also  east  and  west,  respectively, 
of  the  meridian,  but  south  of  the  base  hne. 
Comers. — Only  section  and  quarter-section  corners  were  set  in 
the  original  surveys  made  by  the  United  States  Land  Office. 
Unfortunately  no  one  system  of  marking  the  corners  seems  to 
have  been  followed.     In  most  parts  of  the  middle  West  and  in 
many  parts  of  the  South  stones  were  set,  and  witness  trees,  usu- 
ally four  at  section  corners  and  two  at  quarter-corners,  were 


Oi 

T 

owns 

hip 

jine 

11  N 

ION' 

1 

Fig.  189. 


GENERAL  FIELD    WORK 


197 


blazed  and  scribed  with  the  section,  township,  and  range  numbers. 
In  other  locahties  pits  were  dug  and  mounds  tlirown  up.  In 
later  surveys,  particularly  in  the  West  and  Southwest,  stones 
were  set  at  the  corners  and  chiseled,  as  shown  in  Fig.  191.     Quar- 


K 

c 

a 

Ol 

Township 

Line 

TU 

1 

Tl( 

a 

^ 

Fig.  190. 


ter-corner  stones  in  these  surveys  were  chiseled 


on  their 


west  face  in  north-and-south  hues,  and  in  east-and-west  hnes  the 
north  face  bore  a  similar  inscription,  ^^'here  trees  were  blazed 
as  witnesses  a  second  blaze  near  the  ground  was  scribed  ''  B  T  " 
or  "  W  T,"  the  initial  letters  of  "  Bearing  Tree  "  and  "  Witness 
Tree,"  respectively.  Such  blazes  should  not  be  confused  with 
the  marks  left  by  porcupines  or  with  the  numerous  crosses  cut 
through  the  bark  by  a  rehgious  sect  known  as  the  "  Penitentes." 

Throughout  portions  of  the  South,  particularly  Arkansas  and 
IMissouri,  which  were  surveyed  between  1840  and  1850,  the 
blazes  on  witness  trees  have  been  covered  with  a  new  growth 
of  wood  and  can  be  distinguished  only  after  the  closest  scrutiny. 
Most  of  these  trees,  however,  have  been  blown  or  burned  down, 
and  very  few  of  the  original  corners  can  be  located  except  with 
instruments. 

Metes  and  Bounds  Surveys. — Land  lines  in  most  parts  of  the 
Southeast  and  in  certain  parts  of  the  East  were  not  established 


198   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

IT 

16 

15 

U 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

21 

30 

29 

28 

27 

23 

25 

31 

32 

33 

31 

35 

30 

i  "  ' 

" 

'1 

under  the  rectangular  system  of  surveys,  but  were  run  and  de- 
scribed by  angles  and  courses  tied  to  some  permanent  natural 
landmark.  Such  a  line  might  be  described  as  follows:  "Be- 
ginning at  the  highest  point  on   ( )   Peak,   County  of 

( ),  State  of  ( ),  running  thence  S  24°  E,  11.25  C; 

thence,  S  42°  E,  20.10  C;  thence 
S  14°  W,  11.25  C;  thence  S  20° 
E,  12.40  C; "  and  so  on,  finaUy 
closing  the  survey  at  the  point  of 
beginning. 

Surveying  Crews  and  Their  "Work. 
— Ordinarily  a  surveying  crew  con- 
sists of  the  surveyor,  or  "  transit 
man "     or     "  compass-man,"     two 

_  ,      chainmen,  an  axman,  and  flagman. 

Fig.  191. — A  common  meth-    n^,     ^     ,  .   ^       i  ,. 

od  of  marking  section  cor-  The  first  superintends  and  is  respon- 
uers.  Used  chiefly  in  the  sible  for  all  work  done,  the  chainmen 
V/est.  measure    distances,   the  axman  re- 

moves brush  that  may  interfere  with 
any  of  the  operations  of  surveying,  and  the  flagman  works  in  ad- 
vance of  the  rest  of  the  party,  indicating  under  instructions  from 
the  surveyor  where  the  line  is  to  run.  The  proper  point  at  which 
to  set  his  flag  is  made  known  to  him  by  the  surveyor,  who  sig- 
nals with  his  arms,  or  by  other  means  previously  agreed  upon. 
Assuming  that  a  line  is  being  run  north  and  the  flagman  has  not 
moved  far  enough  east,  this  fact  is  made  known  to  him  by  the 
surveyor,  who  extends  his  right  arm,  verticaUy  if  the  distance 
is  small,  horizontally  if  great,  intermediate  distances  being  indi- 
cated by  proportionate  movements  of  the  arm  between  the  ver- 
tical and  horizontal.  If  the  flagman  is  to  move  to  the  west,  the 
surveyor  signals  with  his  left  arm.  The  flagman  is  to  under- 
stand that  he  has  reached  the  desu-ed  point  when  the  surveyor 
raises  and  lowers,  in  quick  succession,  both  arms  simultaneously. 
He  usually  repeats  this  signal  u^til  he  is  sure  the  flagman  has 
observed  it,  such  observation  on  the  part  of  the  flagman  gener- 
ally being  indicated  by*  his  repetition  of  the  signal  after  the  point 
of  the  flag  has  struck  the  ground. 

If  he  has  gone  too  far  along  the  line  the  flagman  may  be 
brought  back  by  a  circular  motion  of  the  surveyor's  upUfted 
arm,  given  at  a  time  when  the  flagman  happens  to  glance  back. 
He  is  sent  farther  along  the  line  when  the  surveyor  raises  his 


GENERAL    FIELD    WORK  199 

arm  and  drops  it  forward.  Or,  when  previously  agreed  upon, 
other  signals  may  be  used.  These  two  men  should,  how- 
ever, have  a  thorough  understanding  of  all  signals  to  be 
used. 

The  flag  should  be  held  squarely  before  the  flagman's  body, 
the  point  directly  over  the  opening  of  the  "  V  "  formed  by  the 
flagman's  feet  as  he  stands  erect,  facing  the  surveyor.  It  should 
be  gripped  loosely  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  either 
hand  at  a  point  about  on  a  level  with  the  flagman's  chest. 
This  allows  the  pole  to  hang  vertically  and  to  fall  straight 
down  to  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  grip  is  released.  Later 
it  is  planted  firmly  and  left  standing  until  the  surveyor 
arrives.  It  often  happens  that  as  the  result  of  improper 
Light,  or  the  interference  of  brush  or  other  obstacles,  the 
surveyor  is  unable  to  see  the  flag  unless  it  is  held  before  the 
flagman  in  such  a  way  that  his  clothing  acts  as  a  background; 
even  then  the  pole  may  not  be  visible  to  the  siu-veyor,  but  he  will 
be  able  to  ascertain  its  approximate  location  by  reference  to  the 
flagman. 

In  clearing  away  brush  from  the  line  of  sight,  the  axman  needs 
only  to  hack  it  in  one  side  and  then  bend  it  sidewise  out  of  Une 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  course,  thus  leaving  a  comparatively 
free  opening  for  the  chainmen  to  pass  through. 

A  general  rule  in  chaining  is  to  use  eleven  pins,  although  many 
surveyors  contend  that  ten  are  much  more  convenient,  and  that 
by  their  use  mistakes  are  much  less  likely  to  occur.  If  eleven 
are  used,  one  is  set  at  the  starting  point  and  another  is  used  at 
the  end  of  every  chain  thereafter  until  ten  chains  (  a  "  tally  "  ) 
have  been  measured  off.  When  the  rear  chainman  transfers  the 
pins  to  the  front  chainman  at  the  end  of  a  tally,  the  last  pin 
stuck  is  left  sticking  in  the  ground.  Each  time  such  transfers 
are  made  both  men  should  count  the  pins  to  see  that  none  has 
been  overlooked  and  left  behind.  The  best  plan  is  for  each  to 
check  the  other  as  chaining  proceeds.  For  instance,  when  the 
front  man  sticks  his  pin  he  may  call  out  "  Stuck!"  and  as  the 
rear  man  recovers  a  pin  he  may  call  "  Pin!  " 

In  order  to  keep  accurate  count  of  the  tallies  chained,  it  is 
weU  for  each  man  to  record  the  number  in  some  tangible  method 
— i.e.,  he  should  not  attempt  to  keep  the  number  in  mind, 
but  should  keep  check  on  it  by  means  of  pebbles,  one  placed  in 
his  pocket  at  the  end  of  each  tally,  or  should  record  it  in  a 


200   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

note-book,  or  use  some  other  means  of  record  that  can  not  be 
questioned. 

Horizontal,  or  "level,"  chaining  over  rough  country  may 
necessitate  "  breaking  "  the  chain.  When  this  is  done  only  a 
portion  of  the  chain  is  used,  thereby  faciUtating  leveling.  Most 
chains  are  equipped  with  a  ring  and  snap  at  the  middle,  and 
in  such  work  these  may  be  loosened  and  the  chain  divided  in 
half;  otherwise  a  certain  number  of  links  must  be  used  each 
time.  If  a  half-chain  is  used,  the  eleven  pins  may  be  used  to 
tally  five  chains  instead  of  ten.  Errors  invariably  occur  when 
pins  are  thrown  forward  by  the  rear  man  to  be  used  by  the 
front  man  again  in  the  same  tally. 

If  steep  slopes  are  to  be  level  chained  the  rear  man,  when 
ascent  is  being  made,  raises  his  end  of  the  chain  until  it  is  di- 
rectly over  the  last  pin  stuck  and  as  nearly  as  possible  on  a  level 
with  the  front  end.  The  front  man  is  notified  that  the  next  pin 
may  be  stuck,  and  chaining  proceed.  In  making  a  descent,  the 
front  man  raises  his  end  of  the  chain  to  a  level  with  the  rear 
end,  holds  his  pin  loosely,  and  then  allows  it  to  faU,  point  down- 
ward, when  the  rear  man  is  ready.  He  then  sets  the  pin  firmly 
at  the  point  where  it  first  struck. 

THE  STANDARD  FOREST  SERVICE  COMPASS 

This  instrument  is  so  simple  in  construction  that  there  should 
be  no  difficulty  experienced  in  mastering  a  knowledge  of  its 
adaptabihty  to  a  multitude  of  uses.  The  base  is  of  aluminum 
and  is  4  inches  square.  Its  edges  are  beveled,  and  one  bears  a 
4-inch  rule  graduated  in  ^/lo-inches,  while  another  bears  a 
similar  rule  indicating  3^-inches;  the  other  two  edges  are  gradu- 
ated in  degrees  and  half  degrees  and  may  be  used  as  a  pro- 
tractor, thus  rendering  the  instrument  very  useful  in  field 
mapping.  A  small  level  is  attached  to  each  of  two  comers, 
and  these  are  used  in  leveling  the  instrument  when  it  is  set  up. 

At  another  corner  is  a  milled  nut  which  tightens  or  releases 
the  lever  that  raises  the  needle  from  the  center-pivot  point. 
This  nut  should  be  kept  screwed  down  when  the  compass  is  not 
in  use;  otherwise  the  needle  will  be  allowed  to  swing  about  and 
soon  the  pivot-point  will  become  worn  or  dulled  to  an  extent 
that  renders  the  use  of  the  needle  very  unsatisfactory.  How- 
ever, care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  nut  is  loosened  and  the 
needle  allowed  to  swing  clear  when  the  compass  is  beirxg  used. 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  201 

It  may  seem  that  no  field  man  would  attempt  to  run  a  Kne 
with  a  tightly  clamped  needle,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  this  very 
thing  often  occurs,  the  result,  of  course,  of  carelessness. 

Suspended  from  the  center  pivot  is  a  pendulum-like  attach- 
ment kno^-n  as  a  cUnometer  and  suppUed  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  grades  or  elevations.  It  swings  across  an  arc  of 
ISO  degrees,  numbered  from  naught  at  the  center  to  90  on  either 
end.  To  use  the  clinometer,  the  compass  sights  are  opened  and 
the  base  is  held  as  nearly  vertical  as  possible,  allowing  the  cUnom- 
eter to  swing  freely.  The  sights  are  then  trained  on  the  objec- 
tive point,  and  the  base  is  tipped  carefully  until  the  clinometer 
rests  against  it  and  becomes  stationary. 

The  compass  face  is  then  turned  carefully  toward  the  ob- 
server and  the  reading  is  made,  not  in  per  cent  but  in  degrees. 
If  a  per  cent  reading  is  required,  a  table,  showing  the  relative 
values  of  per  cent  and  degrees,  must  be  consulted.  For  such 
a  table  see  page,  354,  Appendix. 

A  vernier  attachment  will  be  found  on  the  side  opposite  the 
cUnometer.  This  works  over  44  degrees  on  one  side  and  27 
degi'ees  on  the  other  side  of  naught,  or  no  variation.  Care  must 
be  taken  in  using  it  to  see  that  variations  are  not  reversed.  If 
the  vernier  is  not  used  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  operator  be 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  subject  of  variations;  other- 
wise improper  readings  may  be  made  and  recorded. 

Just  above  and  attached  to  the  base  is  a  circle  of  360  degrees 
numbered  from  naught,  or  "  N  "  and  "  S,"  to  90  on  the  east 
and  west  points,  according  to  the  style  of  the  compass.  One 
style  has  the  initial  letter  of  each  cardinal  direction  stamped 
on  the  circle,  while  another  bears  a  star,  or  similar  design,  in- 
stead of  "  N,"  and  "  O  "  at  other  points  instead  of  "  S."  "  E," 
and  "  W."  The  style  bearing  initial  letters  of  cardinal  direc- 
tions is  so  lettered  as  to  lead  a  novice  to  believe  that  the  manu- 
facturer made  a  mistake  and  reversed  the  "  E  "  and  "  W."  In 
order  that  he  may  thoroughly  understand  this  method  of  con- 
struction, the  field  man  should  tm-n  his  compass  so  the  hair 
sight,  which  is  always  the  front  sight,  is  immediately  over  the 
north  end  of  the  needle  after  the  needle  has  been  released  and 
aUowed  to  settle.  He  wiU  find  that  a  Une  projected  from  the 
rear  sight  through  the  front  sight  wiU  run  north,  no  aUowance 
being  made  for  variation  in  this  particular  case.  Turning  the 
hair  sight  90  degrees  to  his  left,  or  to  the  west,  he  will  observe 


202   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

that  the  character  which  indicates  West  falls  directly  beneath 
the  north  end  of  the  needle;  turning  it  90  degrees  still  further 
to  his  left,  or  to  the  south,  he  will  notice  the  character  which 
indicates  South  exactly  beneath  the  north  end  of  the  needle; 
and  turning  still  90  degrees  farther  he  will  see  that  the  character 
which  indicates  East  is  under  the  north  end  of  the  needle.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  character  beneath  the  north  end  of 
the  needle  indicates  the  direction  in  which  the  sights  are  trained. 
If  the  north  end  of  the  needle  is  directly  above  20  in  the  arc 
between  "  N  "  and  "  E  "  the  reading  is:  ''  North,  20  degrees 
East,"  and  is  so  recorded.  If  it  points  to  17  in  the  arc  between 
','  N  "  and  ''  W,"  then  the  reading  is:  "  North,  17  degrees  West." 
If  it  indicates  the  figure  89  in  the  arc  between  "  S  "  and  "  E," 
the  reading  is:  "  South,  89  degrees  East."  Pointing  to  2  in  the 
arc  between  "  S  "  and  "  W  "  the  reading  is:  "  South,  2  degrees 
West."  It  will  be  observed  from  this  that  all  readings  begin 
either  from  north  or  south,  the  variation  eastward  or  westward 
being  expressed  in  degrees  after  the  directions  north  and  south 
have  been  read.  Readings  are  recorded  in  the  same  manner  in 
which  they  are  made. 

The  sights  are  hinged  to  the  base  in  such  a  way  that  they  may 
be  folded  dowTi  across  the  glass  face  of  the  compass  when  not 
in  use.     The  hair  sight  is  always  folded  down  first. 

Around  the  glass  will  be  found  another  circle  divided  into 
360  degrees.  Inasmuch  as  this  circle  is  movable,  readings  should 
not  be  based  upon  it.  Originally  this  form  of  compass  was  in- 
tended for  undergi-ound  work  where  wires  were  used  in  the  slots 
when  readings  were  taken. 

On  the  under  side  of  the  square  base,  at  one  corner,  will  be 
found  a  diagram  of  a  township  divided  into  sections,  each  of 
which  is  numbered. 

At  the  center  of  the  under  side  will  be  found  a  shallow  hole 
into  which  the  upper  end  of  the  support  is  screwed.  This  sup- 
port consists  of  a  cylindrical  socket  into  which  one  end  of  a  ball- 
and-socket  joint  fits.  The  two  are  held  together  by  means  of  a 
screw  working  in  a  groove  in  the  pinion.  Rotary  motion  of  the 
Gocket  about  the  pinion  may  be  prevented  by  turning  this  screw 
up  tight,  but  if  necessary  it  may  be  left  loose  enough  to  allow 
such  motion  and  still  prevent  endwise  separation  of  the  two 
pieces.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  pinion  a  ball  fits  into  a  hollow 
circular  nut  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  another  socket  made 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK 


203 


to  fit  over  the  end  of  a  Jacob's  staff  or  on  to  a  tripod.  In  some 
instruments  this  nut  has  a  notch  in  one  side  deep  enough  to 
allow  the  pinion  at  the  ball  to  be  tipped  sidewise  at  right  angles 
to  the  staff,  thus  permitting  the  use  of  the  clinometer. 

If  a  compass  is  to  be  stored  away  for  any  length  of  time  it 
should  be  placed  with  the  magnetized  end  of  the  needle  to  the 
north;  otherwise  a  partially  demagnetized  needle  may  be  the 
result.  If  it  is  to  be  carried  in  an  electrically  propelled  vehicle 
it  should  not  be  placed  near  a  motor  or  d^Tiamo.  "While  being 
used  in  the  field  metalHc  objects  subject  to  magnetic  action  should 
not  be  allowed  near  it;  even  a  heavj^  pocket  knife,  in  close 
proximity  to  a  very  sensitive  needle,  may  deflect  it  from  a  true 
course,  and  surveying  pins  or  axes  should  be  kept  at  a  distance. 

VAUIATION 

A  diagranamatical  explanation  of  variation  wiU  be  found  in 
Fig.  192.  This  drawing  should  not  be  considered  as  precisely 
accurate  or  even  dra\Mi  to  scale;    it  is  purposely  distorted  in 


Fig.  192. — ^Variation. 

order  to  facilitate  the  explanation  and  is  sufficiently  accurate 
for  that  purpose. 

The  location  of  the  magnetic  pole  is  not,  as  may  be  supposed, 
exactly  at  the  north  pole,  but  its  situation  with  reference  to 
the  latter  is  similar  to  that  shown  in  the  illustration.  Assuming 
that  a  compass  is  set  up  at  2,  it  wdll  be  seen  that  a  straight  line 
may  be  drawn  from  it  through  the  circle  to  the  north  pole,  and 


204   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

that  there  is  no  variation  at  this  point,  because  the  compass,  the 
magnetic  pole,  and  the  north  pole  are  all  in  the  same  line.  But, 
observed  from  1,  the  magnetic  pole  varies  to  the  west  of  the 
north  pole,  while  from  6  it  varies  to  the  east,  and  from  3  the 
eastern  variation  is  still  greater.  Therefore,  if  a  hne  is  to  be 
run  due  north,  it  is  necessary  that  the  sights  be  in  Une  with  the 
north  pole  while  the  needle  points  to  the  magnetic  pole. 

The  degrees  of  variation,  at  different  points  throughout  the 
country,  can  most  easily  be  secured  about  9  p.m.  The  sights 
should  be  trained  on  the  pole  star,  after  the  compass  has  been 
set  on  a  firm  table  or  post,  and  the  needle  should  be  released. 
It  should  be  clamped  as  soon  as  it  settles,  and  the  difference  in 
degrees  between  its  north  end  and  the  corresponding  compass 
sight  will  be  the  variation  at  that  particular  point.  This  varia- 
tion is  not,  however,  the  same  at  all  points  along  a  Une  pro- 
jected through  the  sights;  it  is  subject  to  an  irregular  daily  and 
annual  increase  and  decrease  and  to  local  attraction. 

The  subject  should  be  studied  thoroughly  from  charts  sup- 
pUed  for  the  purpose. 

TRAVERSE  TABLES 

These  are  compiled  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  how  great 
a  distance  has  been  covered  in  two  directions  following  Unes  at 
right  angles  to  each  other  when  the  diagonal  distance  has  been 
obtained.  In  other  words,  they  indieate  the  base  and  altitude 
of  a  right-angled  triangle  when  the  fine  of  travel  or  the  hy- 
potenuse has  been  run.  Thus,  assuming  that  a  surveyor  is 
running  a  hne  N.  35°  E.  from  a  section  fine,  he  may,  upon 
reaching  a  point  80  rods  from  where  he  started,  require  the 
distance  due  west  to  the  section  Une.  By  referring  to  the  trav- 
erse table  he  finds  that  in  running  at  an  angle  of  35  degrees 
he  departs  from  the  section  Une  .574  as  far  as  he  has 
actuaUy  traveUed  and  that  in  this  particular  case  he  stands 
11.48  rods  due  east  of  the  section  Une.  If  he  has  occasion  to 
ascertain  how  far  north  he  may  be  of  an  east-and-west  Une 
extended  through  the  starting  point,  his  traverse  table  shows 
that  his  "  latitude  "  is  .819  of  the  distance  he  has  traveled,  or 
in  this  case  16.38  rods.  If  he  has  run  20  rods  due  north  and 
then  requires  the  distance  due  east  to  a  point  N.  25°  E.  of  the 
starting  point,  the  table  shows  him  that  the  length  of  the  north 
and  south  Une  is  .906  of  the  Une  from  the  starting  point  to  the 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  205 

point  in  question.  Accordingly,  he  divides  20  by  .906  and  finds 
that  the  diagonal  Hne  is  approximately  22  rods  long.  Further 
reference  to  the  table  shows  that  when  a  Une  is  run  at  an  angle 
of  25  degrees  the  departure  is  .423  of  the  distance  traveled,  and 
since  the  latter  in  this  case  would  have  been  22  rods  he  finds 
that  the  point  is  approximately  9.30  rods  east. 

For  traverse  table  of  degrees  only,  see  page  357,  Appendix. 

FIRE  FIGHTING 

Fire  Trespass. — Acts  which  constitute  fire  trespass  and  which 
are  prohibited  on  National  Forest  lands  are  shown  on  page  22, 
U.  B.,  1915,  as  foUow: 

Reg.  T-1.  The  following  acts  are  prohibited  on  lands  of  the  United 
States  within  National  Forests: 

(A)  Setting  on  fire  or  causing  to  be  set  on  fire  any  timber,  brush, 
or  grass:  Pro\-ided,  however,  That  this  regulation  shall  not  be 
construed  to  prohibit  the  building  of  necessarj-  camp  fires  or 
other  fires  for  domestic  or  manufacturing  piirposes. 

(B)  Building  a  camp  fire  in  leaves,  rotten  wood,  or  other  places 
where  it  is  hkely  to  spread,  or  against  large  or  hoUow  logs  or 
stumps,  where  it  is  diflicult  to  extinguish  it  completely. 

(C)  Building  a  camp  fire  in  a  dangerous  place,  or  during  windy 
weather,  without  confining  it  to  holes  or  cleared  spaces  from 
which  all  vegetable  matter  has  been  removed. 

(D)  Lea\'ing  a  camp  fire  without  completely  extinguishing  it. 

(E)  Using  steam  engines  or  steam  locomotives  in  operations  on 
National  Forest  lands  imder  any  timber-sale  contract  or  under 
any  permit,  unless  they  are  equipped  with  such  spark  arresters 
as  shall  be  approved  by  the  forest  supervisor,  or  xmless  oil  is 
used  exclusively  for  fuel. 

Under  the  subject  of  Rewards  on  page  24,  U.  B.,  1915,  further 
official  instructions  are  given  as  follow: 

Reg.  T-2.     Hereafter,    pro\aded   Congress   shall   make   the   necessary 

appropriation  or  authorize  the  payment  thereof,  the  Department  of 

Agriculture  wiU  pay  the  following  rewards: 

First.  Not  exceeding  $250  and  not  less  than  $50  for  information 
leading  to  the  arrest  and  con\-iction  of  any  person,  in  any  United 
States  court',  on  the  charge  of  wilfully  and  mahciously  setting 
on  fire,  or  causing  to  be  set  on  fire,  any  timber,  underbrush,  or 
grass  upon  the  lands  of  the  United  States  within  a  National 
Forest. 

Second.  Not  exceeding  $100  and  not  less  than  $25  for  information 
leading  to  the  arrest  and  conviction  of  any  person,  in  any  United 
States  court,  on  the  charge  of  building  a  fire  on  lands  of  the 
United  States  within  a  National  Forest,  in  or  near  any  forest 


206   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

timber  or  other  inflammable  material,  and  leaving  said  fire 
before  the  same  has  been  totally  extinguished. 

Third.  All  officers  and  employees  of  the  Department  of  Agiiculture 
are  barred  from  receiving  reward  for  information  leading  to  the 
arrest  and  conviction  of  any  person  or  persons  committing  either 
of  the  above  offenses. 

Fourth.  The  Department  of  AgricultTire  reserves  the  right  to  refuse 
payment  of  any  claim  for  reward  when,  in  its  opinion,  there  has 
been  collusion  or  improper  methods  have  been  used  to  secure  the 
arrest  and  con\iction  thereunder,  and  to  allow  only  one  reward 
where  several  persons  have  been  convicted  of  the  same  offense  or 
where  one  person  has  been  con\icted  of  several  offenses,  iinless 
the  circumstances  entitle  the  claimant  to  a  reward  on  each  such 
conviction. 

These  rewards  will  be  paid  to  the  person  or  persons  giving  the 
information  leading  to  such  arrests  and  convictions  upon  pres- 
entation to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  satisfactory 
documentary^  evidence  thereof,  subject  to  the  necessary  appropri- 
ation, as  aforesaid,  or  otherwise,  as  may  be  provided  by  law. 
AppUcations  for  reward,  made  in  pursuance  of  this  notice,  should 
be  forwarded  to  the  Forester,  Washington,  D.  C;  but  a  claim 
will  not  be  entertained  imless  presented  within  three  months 
from  the  date  of  con\iction  of  an  offender. 

In  order  that  all  claimants  for  a  reward  may  have  an  opportunity 
to  present  their  claims  within  the  prescribed  hmit,  the  depart- 
ment A\ill  not  take  action  for  three  months  from  date  of  convic- 
tion of  an  offender.  The  above  is  appUcable  to  offenses  commit- 
ted since  July  1,  1910. 

Under  the  subject  of  Cooperation  in  Enforcing  State  Fire 
Laws  on  page  25,  U.  B.,  1915,  further  official  instructions  are 
given  as  follow: 

Reg.  P-1.  All  forest  officers  will  cooperate  with  State  officials,  so 
far  as  practicable,  to  enforce  State  laws  for  the  prevention  and 
extinguishment  of  forest  fires.  When  authorized  to  do  so  by  the 
proper  State  officers,  they  will,  without  additional  pay,  act  as 
fire  wardens  with  fvill  power  to  enforce  the  local  laws. 

Under  the  subject  of  Fire  Protection  Cooperative  Agreements 
on  page  25,  U.  B.,  1915,  further  official  instructions  follow: 
Reg.  P-2.  The  Forest  Service  shall,  whenever  possible,  and  is  hereby 
authorized  to,  enter  into  such  agreements  with  private  owners  of 
timber,  with  railroads,  and  with  other  industrial  concerns  oper- 
ating in  or  near  the  National  Forests  as  will  result  in  mutual 
benefit  in  the  prevention  and  suppression  of  forest  fires;  pro- 
vided, that  the  ser\ice  required  of  each  party  by  such  agreements 
shall  be  in  proportion  to  the  benefits  conferred. 

Patrol. — Thorough  and  systematic  patrol  is  the  first  essential 
in  the  question  of  forest  fire  control.     If  a  carefully  planned 


GENERAL  FIELD   WORK  207 

system  of  patrol  prevails  fires  may  be  attacked  in  their  incipi- 
ency  and  extinguished  or  controlled  with  Uttle  difficulty. 
Patrolmen  should  be  required  to  travel  along  high  ridges  or 
other  points  from  where  the  greatest  territories  subject  to  fire 
danger  may  be  watched.  Upon  discovering  a  fire  they  should 
report  that  fact  to  the  proper  officers  without  delay. 

Equipment. — The  equipment  generally  provided  for  fire  fight- 
ing consists  of  axes,  saws,  rakes,  shovels,  wooden  or  wire  brooms, 
and  such  other  articles  as  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  quick 
suppression  of  fires.  Rakes  and  shovels  may  prove  most  effec- 
tive in  one  locaUty,  but  large  loose  stones,  thick  underbrush,  or 
other  topographical  features  or  vegetable  growths  may  render 
them  worthless  in  another.  Consequently,  before  tools  are 
requisitioned,  the  field  man  must  exercise  care  and  judgment 
in  determining  just  what  articles  will  prove  most  effective  in  his 
particular  district  or  in  the  district  in  which  the  tools  are  to 
be  used. 

Tool  Caches. — These  should  be  located  at  points  easily  acces- 
sible from  large  territories  in  which  fires  may  be  expected  to 
occur.  They  should  contain  such  tools  as  can  best  be  utilized 
in  those  particular  sections  and  should  be  kept  under  lock  and 
key  in  order  to  prevent  their  removal  or  destruction  by  unau- 
thorized or  mahciously  incUned  persons.  The  patrolman  should 
have  an  itemized  Hst  of  the  number  and  kind  of  tools  kept  at 
such  caches  and  should  be  sufficiently  famihar  with  the  location 
of  each  cache  to  enable  him  to  reach  them  without  delay  whether 
a  fire  is  reported  in  the  daytime  or  at  night. 

Immediate  Action. — Unless  specifically  instructed  to  the  con- 
trary, a  field  man  is  expected  to  proceed  immediately  to  any  fire 
that  may  be  reported  in  the  district  assigned  to  his  care.  If  the 
fire  occurs  at  a  point  on  the  boundary  Kne  of  his  district,  or  a 
short  distance  across  on  another  district,  or  on  lands  not  within 
the  National  Forest,  he  is  governed  by  whatever  orders  his 
superior  officer  may  have  issued  on  that  subject. 

Preliminary  Inspection. — Upon  his  arrival  at  a  fire  of  great 
size,  possible  danger,  or  difficult  control,  he  should  make  a  careful 
inspection  of  all  advantages  offered  by  natural  barriers  to  the 
flames.  These  include  such  items  as  water  courses,  ridges,  cliffs, 
caiions,  and  the  absence  of  inflammable  material  at  points 
where  the  fire  may  be  attacked.  Usually  it  is  possible  to  utiHze 
such  conditions  to  good  advantage,  and  without  their  due  con- 


208   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

sideration  the  suppression  of  a  fire  may  require  hours  or  even 
days  of  extra  time,  labor,  and  expense. 

Procedure  Following  Preliminary  Inspection. — As  soon  as  the 
preliminary  inspection  has  been  completed  the  officer  in  charge 
should  proceed  to  put  into  effect  whatever  course  of  action  he 
may  have  decided  upon.  If  the  fight  promises  to  tie  of  several 
days'  duration  and  will  involve  the  services  of  a  large  number 
of  men  he  should  take  immediate  steps  to  secure  the  necessary 
labor.  He  should  also  see  that  the  proper  tools  are  available, 
that  suitable  camp  sites  are  selected,  and  the  camps  arranged  in 
most  advantageous  manner,  that  cooks,  teamsters,  and  foremen 
are  selected  from  among  the  most  experienced  men,  and  that 
every  possible  precaution  is  taken  to  systematize  the  work  and 
to  carry  out  a  definitely  fixed  plan  of  operation  as  quickly  and 
effectively  as  conditions  will  permit. 

Classification  of  Fires. — In  a  general  way  fire  may  be  divided 
into  three  principal  classes,  viz.: 

-  (1)  Ground  Fires;  (2)  Surface  Fires;  (3)  Cro^-n  Fires. 
^  (1)  Ground  Fires. — These  occur  in  regions  where  several  years' 
accumulation  of  leaves,  tv/igs,  branches,  and  old  logs  forms  a 
sort  of  peat  or  spongy  mass  which  may  burn  or  smoulder  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  ground  for  days  or  even  months. 
They  are  especially  common  to  the  Northeast. 

(2)  Surface  Fires. — These  consume  the  Htter  scattered  over 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  thick  beds  of  leaves,  in  old  cuttings 
where  slash  is  abundant,  and  in  locaUties  where  numerous  dead 
dry  logs  and  stumps  appear,  they  may  prove  very  difficult  to 
control.  They  are  common  to  aU  timbered  portions  of  this 
country. 

(3)  Crown  Fires. — These  are  sometimes  known  as  "  top  " 
fires  and  occur  usually  as  the  result  of  severe  surface  fires  from 
which  the  flames  pass  to  and  ignite  the  trunks  and  tops  of  stand- 
ing timber.  They  may  be  expected  to  occur  when  a  combina- 
tion of  climatic  conditions,  such  as  extremely  high  winds  during 
very  dry  weather,  is  especially  favorable.  They  are  common 
to  areas  where  timber  appears  in  dense  stands  such  as  are  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  Northwest. 

Control. — (1)  Ground  Fires. — It  is  usually  possible  to  control 
these  by  means  of  trenches  cut  through  the  peat  to  solid  earth. 
Such  trenches  should  be  not  less  than  2  feet  wide  and  should 
be  absolutely  free  from  all  combustible  material.     Caution  must 


GENERAL   FIELD    WORK  209 

be  exercised  not  to  step  accidentally  on  a  place  where  the  surface 
may  give  way  and  aUow  the  workman  to  be  precipitated  into 
the  live  coals  beneath. 

(2)  Surface  Fires. — A  variety  of  methods  may  be  resorted  to 
in  the  control  of  surface  fires.  In  sandy  locaUties  where  brush 
does  not  occur  in  dense  stands,  rakes  may  be  used  to  clean  out 
a  wide  path  ahead  of  the  fire.  This  should  be  at  least  4  feet 
wide,  wider  if  a  strong  wind  is  blowing.  Where  shovels  can 
be  used  dirt  or  sand  may  be  thro\\Ti  on  the  flames,  burning 
chunks  or  pieces  of  logs  and  branches  may  be  buried,  and  trenches 
may  be  dug  or  paths  shoveled  out.  Wire  or  wooden  brooms 
may  be  used  to  rake  away  inflammable  material  from  long  strips 
ahead  of  and  parallel  with  the  fire  Une.  Wire  flails  may  be 
used  in  beating  out  the  flames  if  these  are  not  too  hot  to  be 
approached  and  worked  over.  Bundles  of  bushes  may  be  used 
in  the  same  manner,  or  a  small  bush  with  a  hea\^^  growth  of 
foHage  may  be  utilized,  as  may  also  wet  saddle  blankets,  gunny 
sacks,  and  blankets.  In  rough,  rocky  regions  picks  or  mattocks 
may  be  necessary  before  the  fire  can  be  controlled.  They  are 
used  in  removing  stone  or  rock,  so  shovels  may  be  used  later 
in  cleaning  off  a  bare  strip  of  ground.  Certain  bags  have  been 
devised  for  use  in  fighting  fires  mth  water,  but  their  use  is  of 
course  limited  to  sections  in  which  plenty  of  water  is  available. 
Chemical  fire  extinguishers  have  also  been  used.^ 

(3)  Crown  Fires. — The  chief  method  of  control  used  in  fighting 
these  fires  is  to  clear  away  the  standing  timber  on  a  strip  of 

1  See  Bui.  113,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  "^Methods  and 
Apparatus  for  the  Prevention  and  Control  of  Forest  Fires,  as  Ex- 
emplified on  the  Arkansas  National  Forest,"  by  Daniel  W.  Adams. 

See  also  the  following:  Bui.  117,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
"Forest  Fires:  Their  Causes,  Extent,  and  Effects,  AVith  a  Summarj'  of 
Recorded  Destruction  and  Loss,"  by  Fred  G.  Plvunmer. 

Cir.  205,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricultiu-e,  "Forest  Fire  Protection 
Under  the  Weeks  Law  in  Cooperation  with  States,"  by  J.  Girvin 
Peters. 

Bui.  82,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  "Protection  of  Forests 
from  Fire,"  by  Henrj^  S.   Graves. 

Bui.  Ill,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  "Lightning  in  Relation  to 
Forest  Fires,"  by  Fred  G.  Plummer. 

"Fire  Prevention  and  Control  on  National  Forests,"  by  S.  C. 
Bart  rum. 

"Better  Methods  of  Fire  Control,"  by  W.  B.  Greeley. 

"National  Forest  Fire-Protection  Plans,"  by  Coert  Du  Bois. 

"Light  Burning  in  California  Forests,"  by  F.  E.  Olmstead 


210   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

ground  from  75  to  100  or  more  feet  in  width.  It  may  be  found 
necessary  in  severe  fires  to  clear  two  such  strips  parallel  with 
each  other  and  from  50  to  100  yards  apart.  The  inflammable 
material  on  the  intervening  space  is  then  fired,  and  this  presents 
a  check  to  the  approaching  fire.  Such  Unes  must  of  course  be 
well  in  advance  of  the  main  fire  Une. 

Fighting  the  Flames. — This  should  not  be  done  in  an  irregular 
or  unsystematic  manner.  Action  should  be  moderately  rapid, 
but  not  to  an  extent  that  will  cause  complete  physical  exhaus- 
tion in  a  few  minutes.  When  rest,  food,  and  sleep  become  nec- 
essary a  rehable  man  should  be  placed  in  charge  of  operations 
until  the  field  man  is  again  able  to  resume  supervision.  Where 
two  or  more  field  men  are  present  they  may  work  in  shifts  of 
so  many  hours  each,  depending  upon  their  number.  This  per- 
mits an  officer  to  be  in  charge  during  the  entire  fight. 

Patrolling  the  Backline. — Patrol  of  the  backhne,  or  the  edge 
of  the  burned-over  area,  is  the  most  important  part  of  fire  con- 
trol. Only  the  most  rehable  men  should  be  detailed  to  such 
work  and  they  should  be  extremely  careful  to  see  that  all  burn- 
ing logs,  chunks,  branches,  and  similar  articles  are  thro^Ti  well 
back  on  the  burned-over  area.  If  such  removal  is  impossible 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  sparks  do  not  blow  from  them 
to  unbumed  territory  and  start  another  fire.  Such  work  should 
not  be  centered  at  one  point  along  the  line,  but  should  be  dis- 
tributed along  the  entire  line,  the  patrolmen  going  along  the 
Une  at  regular  intervals  until  all  danger  is  past.  This  should  be 
continued  for  several  days  if  dry,  windy  w^eather  follows  suppres- 
sion of  the  fire.  Burning  trees  standing  near  the  edge  of  the 
burned-over  area  should  be  felled  backward  on  it  when  this 
can  be  done.  Otherwise  they  should  be  felled  and  then  care- 
fully burned  around  after  the  upstanding  branches  have  been 
cut  away  and  compactly  piled. 

FIELD  COOKINGi 

Since  cooking  faciUties  m  the  field  are  necessarily  Hmited,  only 
the  simplest  recipes  are  given  here,  and  it  is  huggested  that  the 
novice  take  advantage  of  his  spare  moments  to  experiment  with 
other  and  more  compHcated  dishes. 

1  For  list  of  provisions  and  supplies  required  and  for  table  of  cooking 
utensils  necessary  for  from  one  to  thirty  men  see  "Fire  Prevention  and 
Control  on  National  Forests,"  tables  2  and  3,  by  S.  C.  Bartrum. 


GENERAL   FIELD   WORK  211 

A  few  general  rules  which  will  be  of  assistance  to  the  beginner 
are  offered.  Chief  among  these  is  the  mixing  together  of  dry 
ingredients  before  liquids  are  added;  the  latter  are  then  also 
mixed  together,  and  finally  the  two  mixtures  are  added  together. 
This  rule  holds  good  in  all  cases  unless  specific  advice  to  the 
contrary  is  given.  Another  point  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  the 
fact  that  actual  experience  is  essential  to  the  best  cooking  and 
that  satisfactory  results  can  not  always  be  obtained  merely  by 
following  a  given  recipe.  Ingredients  may  vary  in  strength  of 
quahty,  fuel  may  not  supply  the  proper  heat,  altitude  has  its 
effect,  the  water  used  has  more,  milk,  which  should  be  sour,  may 
be  only  "  turned,"  or  the  same  condition  may  exist  in  milk 
that  should  be  sweet.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  also  that 
nothing  definite  on  the  subject  of  seasoning  can  be  offered,  since 
individual  tastes  differ  so  widely  that  they  must  be  considered 
in  every  case.  A  recipe  therefore  can  be  considered  only  as  a 
general  guide  and  must  be  varied  to  suit  local  conditions.  As  a 
result  the  field  man  who  is  unable  to  exercise  any  ingenuity  can 
never  hope  to  become  a  proficient  cook. 

Canned  Foods. — Camp  food,  or  "  chuck  "  or  "  grub,"  as  it 
may  be  known  in  the  camp  vernacular,  consists  largely  of  canned 
meats,  fruits,  and  vegetables,  and  as  these  undergo  a  more  or 
less  extensive  process  of  cooking  at  the  time  they  are  canned 
they  do  not  require  a  great  amount  of  cooking  prior  to  being 
served.  With  the  exception  of  milk,  which  may  stand  in  the 
open  can  for  several  days  and^not  spoil,  all  canned  goods  should 
be  removed  from  the  can  to  glass,  porcelain,  or  enamelware  dishes 
immediately  after  the  can  is  opened.  This  is  especially  true  of 
acidulous  fruits  and  also  appHes  especially  to  meats.  Chemical 
action  may  occur  and  render  the  foods  poisonous  if  they  are 
left  exposed  to  air  in  the  opened  can.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  transfer  them  to  other  tin  or  iron  dishes. 

Bread. — Crackers  will  not  prove  satisfactory  on  extended  trips 
and  baker's  bread  soon  becomes  tiresome.  Consequently  camp- 
made  bread  is  a  necessity,  but  instead  of  presenting  the  difficult 
problem  its  preparation  may  appear  to  be,  it  is,  in  fact,  a  simple 
process. 

Where  quick  meals  are  required  the  bread  may  be  made  in 
the  form  of  biscuits  or  "  flapjacks,"  but  if  a  camp  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  semi-permanent  establishment,  then  a  more  elaborate 
system  of  cooking  may  be  followed. 


212   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

The  chief  item  in  baking  good  bread  is  to  have  the  oven  hot 
when  the  dough  is  placed  in  it.  Otherwise  the  bread  will  be 
heavy  and  unpalatable. 

Sour  Dough  Bread. — Make  a  batter  of  flour  and  water  and 
let  this  stand  in  a  warm  place  until  fermentation  occurs.  A  half- 
pint  of  the  fermented  mixture  is  equal  to  a  cupful  of  old  yeast. 
Sour  dough  bread  is  made  by  adding  a  cupful  of  flour  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt  to  a  cupful  of  the  fermented  mixture.  If  a 
tablespoonful  of  sugar  is  also  added  the  bread  will  broun  better 
in  baking.  Sour  dough  biscuits  are  made  in  a  similar  manner 
except  that  more  flour  is  added  and  the  dough  made  stiffer. 
The  bread  or  biscuits  should  be  baked  in  a  hot  oven. 

Sour  dough  flapjacks  must  of  course  be  made  from  much 
thinner  batter  than  is  used  either  for  bread  or  biscuits. 

A  permanent  supply  of  the  fermented  mixture  may  be  kept 
on  hand  by  replacing  an  amount  equal  to  that  removed  at  each 
baking,  the  ''  starter  "  being  kept  in  a  jar  provided  for  that 
purpose. 

Yeast  Bread. — Add  a  teacupful  of  yeast  to  three  teacupfuls 
of  cold  water,  stir  in  sufficient  flour  to  make  a  stiff  batter  and 
let  it  stand  overnight.  In  the  morning  mix  again  till  the 
batter  is  quite  stiff.  Bake  in  a  wxll-greased  pan  in  a  hot 
oven. 

The  variety  of  yeast  most  commonly  used  in  camp  is  known 
as  "  potato  "  yeast  and  is  made  as  foUows:  Confine  a  handful 
of  hops  in  a  small  bag  and  boil  with  two  average  size  potatoes. 
Mash  the  latter  when  they  are  well  done  and  add  to  them  two 
cups  of  flour.  Scald  this  mixture  with  the  water  in  which  the 
potatoes  were  boiled.  When  this  has  cooled  add  to  it  one  yeast 
cake  well  soaked  in  warm  water.  The  yeast  cake  may  be  pro- 
cured at  any  grocery  store. 

Salt  Rising  Bread. — This  is  not  as  palatable  as  yeast  bread, 
but  is  prepared  with  less  trouble  and  bakes  much  more  quickly. 
Scald  half  a  teacupful  of  meal  with  half  a  pint  of  boihng  sweet 
milk,  add  sugar  and  salt  to  suit,  then  let  the  mixture  stand  in 
a  warm  place  overnight.  Next  morning  scald  a  teaspoonful 
of  salt,  the  same  amount  of  sugar  and  haff  as  much  soda,  with 
a  pint  of  boiling  water.  Add  this  to  the  mixture  prepared  the 
night  before  and  stiffen  the  whole  with  as  much  flour  as  may 
be  required.  Mix  it  quite  stiff  when  it  has  become  sufficiently 
Hght  after  having  been  left  in  another  vessel  hung  in  a  kettle 


GE 'JERAL    FIELD    WORK  213 

of  warm  water.  Add  a  tablespoonful  of  lard  before 
molding  into  loaves.  Bake  in  a  well-greased  pan  in  a  hot 
oven. 

Baking  Powder  Bread. — ]Mix  a  tablespoonful  of  baking  powder 
and  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  into  a  pint  of  fiom-.  Stir  thoroughly 
until  the  three  are  well  mixed,  then  add  water  or  milk  and  stir 
again.  These  should  be  added  in  quantities  sufficient  to  make 
the  dough  as  thick  or  thin  as  desired.  The  dough  should  be 
worked  or  handled  as  Uttle  as  possible  and  should  be  baked  in 
a  well-greased  pan  in  a  hot  oven.  As  soon  as  the  water  or  milk 
begins  to  mix  with  the  baking  powder  a  gas  form.s  that  makes 
the  bread  hght.  If  the  dough  is  worked  much  this  gas  escapes 
before  the  dough  becomes  hard  enough  on  top  to  keep  it  con- 
fined.    Heavy  bread  is  the  result. 

Potato  Bread. — Boil  four  medium-size  potatoes  for  each  loaf 
of  bread  to  be  baked.  \Mien  these  are  well  done  mash  them 
thoroughly,  then  add  two  teacupfuls  of  flour  and  mix.  Scald 
the  mixture  with  the  potato  water.  Knead  well  and  let  the 
dough  stand  overnight.  Knead  again  the  next  morning  and 
let  it  rise  before  molding  into  loaves. 

Rye  Bread. — ^Use  the  same  sponge  as  for  wheat  or  "  hght  " 
bread  and  let  it  stand  overnight.  Then  add  a  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  one  pint  each  of  sweet  milk  and  water,  half  a  teacupful  of 
molasses  or  sugar,  and  stiffen  the  whole  with  rye  flour.  The 
dough  should  not  be  made  as  stiff  as  in  wheat  bread. 

Rice  Bread. — Boil  a  teacupful  of  rice  in  a  pint  of  water  till 
tender.  Add  half  a  pint  of  milk,  then  let  the  mixture  cool. 
When  cold  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  half  as  much 
sugar,  one-fourth  as  much  salt,  and  one  and  one-haK  pints  of 
flour.     i\lix  well. 

Com  Bread. — To  a  pint  each  of  meal  and  buttermilk  well 
mixed  together  add  two  eggs,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  melted  lard 
or  butter,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda  and  half  as  much  salt,  also 
well  mixed  together.  If  buttermilk  can  not  be  secured  use 
water,  but  instead  of  using  the  soda  with  water  a  teaspoonful 
of  baking  powder  should  be  used.  Soda  mixed  with  water  or 
baking  powder  mixed  with  buttermilk  will  not  produce  satis- 
factory results. 

Soda  Biscuits. — Dissolve  a  level  teaspoonful  of  soda  in  a  pint 
of  buttermilk,  then  add  a  heaping  tablespoonful  of  lard  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt.     Mix  thoroughly,  then   stir  in   a  quart   of 


214   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

flour.  Let  the  dough  rise  for  about  twenty  minutes  before  it 
is  placed  in  a  hot  oven. 

Baking  Powder  Biscuits. — Prepare  the  same  as  for  bread  and 
cut  or  mold  the  dough  into  lumps  the  size  desired. 

Johnny  Cake. — Mix  three  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  a  teacupful  of  sugar,  all  mixed  well 
together,  with  two  eggs  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  lard.  Stir 
a  quart  of  corn  meal  into  a  quart  of  sweet  milk,  then  add  the 
first  mixture  and  stir  again.  If  sour  milk  is  to  be  used  a  heap- 
ing teaspoonful  of  soda  should  be  substituted  for  the  baking 
powder.     Bake  in  a  shallow  pan. 

Potato  Cakes. — Add  an  egg  to  three  peeled  and  grated  pota- 
toes of  medium  size,  and  salt  to  suit.  Mix  w^ell  together  and 
fry  in  hot  grease. 

Rice  Cakes. — Add  one  and  one-haK  pints  of  flour  to  the 
same  amount  of  boiled  rice.  To  this  mixture  add  three  eggs, 
a  heaping  teaspoonful  of  butter  or  lard,  one  teaspoonful  of 
soda,  one  teacupful  each  of  sour  and  sweet  milk,  and  salt  to 
suit.     Bake  immediately. 

Flour  Cakes. — Use  a  quart  of  flour  and  sour  milk  for  batter 
and  let  it  stand  overnight.  Next  morning  dissolve  a  teaspoonful 
of  soda  in  three  times  as^  much  water  and  add  it,  together  wdth 
two  well-beaten  eggs,  to  the  batter.  Salt  to  suit.  Water  may 
be  used  in  Ueu  of  sour  milk,  in  which  case  use  a  heaping  tea- 
spoonful of  baking  powder  instead  of  soda. 

Buckwheat  Cakes. — Add  a  teacupful  of  yeast  to  a  quart  of 
buttermilk  and  water,  equal  parts.  Put  in  salt  to  suit,  then 
stir  in  enough  buckwheat  flour  to  make  a  batter  and  let  it  stand 
overnight.  Next  morning  dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of  soda  in 
warm  water  and  add  it  to  the  batter.     Bake  immediately 

Com  Meal  Mush. — Add  meal  to  boihng  water  and  stir  well 
to  prevent  lumps  forming.  Season  wdth  salt  to  suit  and  make 
the  mush  as  thick  or  thin  as  desired. 

Cracked  Wheat  Mush. — Stir  a  teacupful  of  cracked  or  rolled 
w^heat  into  a  quart  of  w^ater  and  add  salt  to  suit.  Less  boiling 
will  be  required  if  the  wheat  is  soaked  overnight. 

Oatmeal  Mush. — Add  four  or  five  tablespoonfuls  of  oatmeal 
to  a  quart  of  cold  water,  salt  to  suit,  then  boil  slowly  for  half 
an  hour,  taking  care  to  replenish  the  water  as  it  boils  away. 
Unless  a  double  boiler  is  used  the  mixture  should  be  stirred 
continually  to  prevent  burning. 


GENERAL    FIELD   WORK  215 

Hominy  Mush. — Soak  a  teacupful  of  hominy  overnight  in  a 
quart  of  well-salted  water,  then  boil  for  an  hour.  With,  cream 
and  sugar  this  makes  an  excellent  breakfast  food. 

Cereals. — Nearly  all  packed  cereals  may  be  eaten  raw  with 
cream  and  sugar.  However,  oatmeal  and  cream  of  wheat  should 
be  weJl  soaked  and  then  boiled  in  salt  water.  This  apphes  also 
to  rice. 

Game  Meats.^ — Game  meats  include  the  meat  of  the  bear, 
deer,  rabbit,  squirrel,  wild  turkeys,  ducks  and  geese,  grouse, 
quails,  partridges,  and  such  other  birds  and  animals  as  may 
be  considered  edible.  The  hst  may  also  include  opossums, 
raccoons,  ground-hogs  (woodchucks),  hedgehogs,  and  snipe, 
plover,  doves,  pigeons,  and  yellow-hammers.  Bear  meat  is  at 
its  best  when  the  animal  is  killed  during  the  autumn  months 
while  it  is  fat  and  immediately  before  the  animal  hibernates. 
After  a  season  of  hibernation  the  meat  is  dry  and  tough,  no  fat 
is  present,  and  it  is  otherwise  in  such  condition  as  to  be  far 
from  palatable.  Deer  meat  or  venison  is  best  in  winter. 
The  choicest  parts  are  those  of  a  fine,  reddish-bro\Mi  grain, 
such  as  the  saddle,  which  is  that  part  of  the  back  from 
the  ribs  to  the  hips  and  which  includes  the  hams.  The 
most  common  and  best  method  of  preparation  is  by  frying. 
The  meat  may  also  be  dried  and  kept  for  long  periods.  The 
meat  of  an  old  game  animal  should  be  made  tender  by  par- 
boiling. This  is  done  by  boihng  it  in  a  strong  solution  of  soda 
and  water  for  a  period  of  from  twenty  minutes  to  an  hour.  Old 
animals  may  be  recognized  by  their  lack  of  plumpness  and  by 
their  short,   yellow,  worn-out  teeth  and  scaly  claws.     Young 

^  The  following  six  rules  for  sportsmen  in  the  National  Forests  are 
quoted  from  an  official  poster  placed  before  the  public  in  Sept.,   1915: 

1.  Prevent  Forest  Fires.  They  destroy  the  himting  groxmds  and  the 
game. 

2.  Take  the  Game  Law  with  You.  It  may  be  obtained  from  any 
Forest  Officer. 

3.  Make  Sure  It's  a  Buck.  It  may  be  a  Doe,  a  Cow,  or  a  Man. 
How  would  you  feel? 

4.  Wet  the  Hand  Before  Removing  Undersized  Fish.  It  prevents 
breaking  the  mucous  covering  and  the  entrance  of  fatal  molds. 

5.  Don't  Shoot  Harmless  Wild  Life.  Only  Sharp-shinned  Hawks, 
Great  Homed  Owls,  Prairie  Dogs,  Porcupines,  and  "Varmints"  do 
more  harm  than  good. 

6.  Leave  a  Clean  Camp  and  a  Clean  Record.  You  may  want  to  come 
back. 


216   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


animals  have  white,  sound,  short  teeth  and  smooth,  symmetrical 
claws. 

Old  birds  should  also  be  parboiled.  They  may  be  known  by 
their  scaly  legs  and  claws,  their  long  spurs,  if  these  are  present, 
and  the  generally  rough  and  more  or  less  bedraggled  appearance 
of  their  plumage.  Young  birds  have  smooth  legs  and  feet,  short 
spurs,  and  plumage  of  a  healthy  appearance. 

Domestic  Meats. — These  include  the  meat  of  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep  and  goats,  and  domestic  fowls.  The  first  is  known  as 
''  beef  "  if  from  animals  over  about  six  months  old,  and  as  "  veal " 
if  from  calves.  The  second  comes  under  the  head  of  "  pork," 
the  dried  sides  being  knowTi  in  many  parts  of  the  West  as  "  salt 
horse  "  and  in  the  South  as  "  sow  belly."  Meat  from  the  sheep 
is  known  as  "  mutton,"  and  the 
same  term  is  usually  appHed  to  goat 
meat  as  well. 

Any  frozen  meat  should  be 
thawed  in  cold  salt  water  before 
being  cooked.  Certain  portions  of 
most  meats,  such  as  ribs  and 
steak,  are  best  when  fried.  Other 
parts,  usually  those  including  joints 
or  large  bones,  are  best  boiled.  For 
the  different  cuts  of  beef  see 
Fig.  193. 

Fresh  beef  and  mutton  are  usually 
secured  from  private  sources  in 
the  field,  but  pork  comes  in  the 
shape  of  hams  and  shoulders  or 
salt  sides.  Before  being  cooked, 
hams,  shoulders,  and  salt  sides 
should  be  freshened  in  cold  or  warm 
water.  This  removes  a  greater 
part  of  the  salt  used  in  the  pre- 
servative treatment  apphed  to  them 
at  the  time  they  are  packed. 
Fried. — This  method  of  preparing  meat  requires  so  much 
grease  that  the  average  person  soon  tires  of  such  food,  and  when- 
ever possible  to  do  so  the  field  man  should  vary  the  method  of 
preparation  by  boiling,  stewing,  or  roasting.  In  frying  meats 
the  pan  should  have  a  layer  of  grease  over  the  entire  bottom 


Fig.  193.— Cuts  of  beef. 

1.  Neck,  or  Sticking-Piece. 

2.  Chuck  Ribs. 

3.  :Middle  Ribs. 

4.  Fore  Ribs. 

5.  Sirloin. 

6.  Aitchbone. 

7.  Rump. 

8.  Buttock. 

9.  Hock. 

10.  Round. 

11.  Veiny  Piece. 

12.  Thick  Flank. 

13.  Thin  Flank. 

14.  Brisket. 

15.  ShoiUder. 
IG.  Shin. 


GENERAL    FIELD    WORK  217 

of  at  least  Vi6-inch  in  thickness.  During  the  process  of  frying 
the  meat  should  also  be  covered  with  a  pan  hd  in  order  to  keep 
in  all  the  heat  possible.  Proper  frying  consists  chiefly  of  heat- 
ing the  meat  clear  through  at  the  earhest  possible  moment. 
It  should  also  be  tm-ned  frequently  and  not  allowed  to  burn 
or  harden  on  one  side.  The  gi'ease  should  be  hot  when  the 
meat  is  placed  in  it. 

Boiled. — This  is  done  by  dropping  large  pieces  of  meat  into 
boihng  water  and  boihng  them  till  the  layers  of  meat  may  be 
separated  from  each  other  without  difficulty.  It  is  a  very  satis- 
factory way  of  preparing  joints  and  pieces  of  meat  surrounding 
large  bones,  but  is  somewhat  more  troublesome  than  frying. 
The  water  in  which  such  meats  are  boiled  may  be  seasoned 
with  salt,  pepper,  or  other  articles  and  is  then  knowTi  as  soup. 
Vegetables  may  be  boiled  with  the  meat  and  the  mixture  is 
then  known  usuallj^  as  a  "  stew  "  or  "  muUigan." 

Broiled. — This  method  of  preparation  is  usually  apphed  to 
steaks  and  large  pieces  of  meat  having  no  bone  in  them.  In 
such  cases  the  meat  is  placed  on  a  hot  stove  or  over  hve  coals. 
The  process  differs  from  frying  in  that  no  gi-ease  is  used,  and 
from  roasting  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  meat  is  not  allowed 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  flames.  It  soon  causes  the  outer 
portions  of  the  meat  to  assume  a  more  compact  nature,  and  thus 
serves  to  retain  the  meat  juices. 

Roasted. — This  method  is  used  when  cooking  utensils  are  not 
available,  and  consists  merely  in  placing  the  meat  near  enough 
to  the  fire  to  render  the  former  more  tender  and  palatable  by 
heating  it  through  suddenly.  The  meat  may  be  held  in  posi- 
tion by  a  forked  stick  or  other  similar  contrivance  or  it  may  be 
suspended  from  a  pot-rack.     (See  Fig.  194.) 

Fish. — Fish  taken  from  clear,  fresh  water  may  be  cooked  as 
soon  as  cleaned  and  dressed,  but  those  which  are  taken  from 
muddy  or  stagnant  streams  should  be  soaked  in  a  strong  solution 
of  salt  and  water  for  from  one  to  two  hours.  This  will  remove 
the  unpleasant  muddy  taste  when  such  fish  are  cooked.  Frozen 
fish  should  be  thawed  in  cold  water  to  which  a  httle  salt  has 
been  added.  Small  fish,  such  as  trout,  perch,  and  small  bass, 
are  better  when  cooked  whole,  preferably  by  frying.  The  larger 
varieties  should  first  be  cut  into  pieces  and  then  cooked.  To 
prepare  fish  for  cooking,  remove  the  scales  or  skin,  take  out  the 
entrails,  wash  clean  both  inside  and  out,  and  dry  clean  with  a 


218   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

soft  cloth  which  absorbs  water  well.  Catfish  and  others  having 
no  scales  must  be  skinned.  This  is  done  by  dipping  them  into 
boiUng  water  and  holding  them  there  about  ten  seconds.  This 
has  a  tendency  to  cook  the  skin  and  separate  it  from  the  flesh. 
If  kept  in  boiUng  water  much  longer  than  that  portions  of  the 
flesh  will  be  removed  with  the  skin.     Eels  should  be  skinned  in 


----S:^ 


^9=" 


Wire  hooks. 


Wooden  hooks. 
Fig.  194.— Pot-racks. 


Fig.  195. — Camp  table  and  seats. 


a  similar  manner.  After  the  dipping  process  has  been  completed 
the  skin  is  cut  around  the  neck  immediately  to  the  rear  of  the 
head  and  is  then  stripped  backward  over  the  body. 

Fried. — Roll  the  fish  in  flour,  meal,  or  bread  or  cracker  crumbs 
and  fry  in  plenty  of  grease  over  a  hot  fire.  When  one  side  has 
been  browned  to  the  desired  degree  turn  the  fish  over  and  treat 
the  other  side  likewise.  Seasoning  should  be  added  to  suit  the 
individual  taste. 

Boiled. — Cut  the  fish  into  pieces  of  the  required  size  and  drop 
them  into  boiling  water.     They  may  be  seasoned  while  being 


GENERAL   FIELD   WORK  219 

boiled  or  the  seasoning  may  be  applied  at  the  time  they  are 
served. 

Eggs. — Fried. — Break  the  eggs  into  a  separate  dish,  then  sHde 
them  into  a  hot,  well-greased  pan  in  such  a  way  that  the  yolks 
are  not  broken.  Add  salt  and  pepper  to  suit.  Occasional  bad 
eggs  will  not  be  broken  in  with  good  eggs  if  all  are  broken  into 
some  receptacle  other  than  the  pan  in  which  they  are  to  be 
fried. 

Boiled. — If  soft-boiled  eggs  are  desired  they  should  be  boiled 
three  minutes,  in  very  high  altitudes  five  minutes.  Hard-boiled 
eggs  require  six  minutes  of  boihng,  in  high  altitudes  ten.  They 
may  be  considered  as  hard  boiled  when  the  shells  dry  immedi- 
ately after  they  are  removed  from  the  water.  One  very  com- 
mon method  of  hard  boihng  is  to  place  the  eggs  in  cold  water 
and  heat  slowly  to  a  temperature  just  below  boihng.  Half  an 
hour  of  such  preparation  is  sufficient. 

Scrambled. — These  are  prepared  the  same  as  for  frying  except 
that  the  whites  and  j^olks  are  all  beaten  together. 

Poached. — SUde  the  broken  eggs  into  boihng  water,  taking 
care  not  to  break  the  yolks.  Boil  as  long  as  desired  and  season 
when  served. 

Roasted. — Cover  unbroken  eggs  with  Hve  coals.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  eggs  are  not  burned. 

Baked. — Shde  broken  eggs  into  a  hot  and  well-greased  stew- 
pan  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven.  If  no  stove  is  available  use  the 
Dutch  oven. 

Omelet. — Prepare  the  same  as  scrambled  eggs,  and  add  sweet 
milk  and  bread  or  cracker  crumbs  till  the  mixture  is  as  thick 
as  desired.  Keep  the  mixture  well  stirred  to  prevent  burning 
and  season  as  desired. 


VEGETABLES 

Potatoes. — Boiled. — Pare  them  and  cut  the  large  ones  in  half, 
wash  them  thoroughly,  then  boil  them  till  they  offer  little  or 
no  resistance  to  a  fork  thrust  into  them.  When  they  reach  this 
stage  remove  them  from  the  fire,  drain  off  the  water,  then  set 
back  over  the  fire  to  dry.     Season  when  served. 

Mashed. — Prepare  the  same  as  for  boiling,  then  mash  thoroughly 
and  season  when  served. 

Fried. — Peel  and  shce  thin  and  fry  in  grease  in  a  hot  pan; 


220   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

salt  and  pepper  may  be  added  as  they  fry.  If  boiled  first  and 
sliced  when  cold  they  will  fry  much  more  quickly. 

Creamed. — Cut  peeled  potatoes  in  small  pieces  and  boil  in 
salt  water,  drain,  add  sweet  milk,  butter,  salt  and  other  desired 
seasoning,  then  boil  again.  Remove  them  from  the  fire  shortly 
after  the  milk  boils. 

Baked. — ^Wash  clean  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven.  The  skins  need 
not  be  removed,  but,  if  tough,  should  be  pricked  or  punctured  at 
a  number  of  places  in  order  to  allow  the  escape  of  steam  and 
gases. 

Roasted. — Cover  impeded  potatoes  with  live  coals.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  they  do  not  burn  to  a  crisp. 

Beans. — Boiled. — These  increase  in  quantity  about  one-haK 
when  boiled.  Remove  all  dirt,  pebbles,  and  shriveled  or  de- 
cayed beans  and  wash  the  sound  ones  twice  in  cold  water. 
Add  a  scant  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  a  half  gallon  of  beans  cov- 
ered with  water,  boil  thirty  minutes,  then  change  the  water  and 
wash  the  beans  again.  After  this  they  should  be  boiled  till  all 
are  soft.  As  the  water  boils  away  it  should  be  renewed  with 
boiling  water.  Cold  water  will  retard  the  process  of  boiling. 
If  soda  is  not  available  change  the  water  after  the  beans  have 
boiled  about  twenty  minutes,  using  fresh  cold  water. 

Onions. — Boiled. — Peel  and  quarter  the  onions  and  di'op  them 
into  boiling  water.  Boil  the  same  as  potatoes,  adding  salt, 
pepper,  or  other  seasoning  to  suit. 

Fried. — Peel  and  slice  the  onions  very  thin,  sprinkle  with  salt, 
pepper,  or  other  seasoning,  then  fry  in  hot  grease.  These  may 
be  fried  with  potatoes  and  found  to  be  very  palatable. 

Fresh. — Cut  away  the  roots  and  the  dead  tops,  wash  care- 
fully and  place  in  cold  water  to  keep  them  fresh.  If  the  long 
green  tops  are  not  desired  they  may  be  cut  away  at  the  body 
of  the  vegetable. 

Green  Vegetables. — Boiled. — Wash  the  vegetables  thoroughly 
and  drop  them  into  boiUng  water  that  has  been  salted  in  the 
proportion  of  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  a  quart  of  water.  If  such 
water  is  allowed  to  boil  too  long  before  the  vegetables  are  placed 
in  it  they  wiU  have  a  less  agreeable  taste.  This  is  due  to  the 
deposits  that  the  boiling  water  makes  on  the  sides  and  bottom 
of  the  vessel.  Young  or  fresh  vegetables  boil  more  quickly  than 
old  or  stale  ones,  but  under  ordinary  circumstances  the  following 
table  may  be  followed  with  generally  satisfactory  results: 


GENERAL    FIELD    WORK 


221 


Beans boiled 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Green  com 

Green  peas 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Potatoes baked 

Sweet  potatoes,  .boiled 
Sweet  potatoes . .  baked 

Rutabagas boiled 

Squash " 

String  beans.  ...      " 
Turnips 


hours 


(depending  upon  its  age) 


Rice. — Boiled. — Rice  swells  to  about  three  times  its  normal 
size  and  doubles  in  weight  when  boiled.  It  should  be  cleaned 
the  same  as  beans  and  then  washed  thoroughly.  Two  quarts 
of  water  wiU  be  sufficient  for  boiling  haK  a  pound  of  rice.  Add  a 
tablespoonful  of  salt  and  boil  twenty  minutes,  then  drain  off 
the  water  and  place  the  vessel  in  another  filled  with  boiling 
water.  Cover  the  rice  and  steam  it  for  fifteen  minutes,  then 
remove  the  cover  and  steam  it  five  minutes  longer.  If  a  second 
vessel  is  not  available  boil  the  rice  twenty  minutes,  then  drain  off 
the  water,  remove  the  rice  from  the  kettle,  sprinkle  salt  over 
the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  latter,  rub  them  well  with  a  dry 
cloth,  then  replace  the  rice  and  set  it  near  the  fire  to  dry  and 
sweU.  Stirring  it  breaks  the  grains.  To  test  it,  squeeze  a  grain 
between  the  fingers.     If  done  it  will  mash  easily. 

Sandwiches. — Egg. — Use  coarse-grated,  hard-boiled  eggs  and 
spread  them  on  buttered  bread.  Add  salt,  pepper,  mustard, 
sauce,  or  other  seasoning  to  suit,  then  cover  with  a  second  sUce 
of  bread. 

Ham  or  Tongue. — Stir  the  j^olk  of  an  egg  into  finely  chopped 
ham  or  tongue,  then  prepare  the  same  as  an  egg  sandwich. 

Fish. — Remove  all  skin  or  bones  and  prepare  the  same  as 
ham  or  tongue. 

FRUITS 

Apples. — Baked. — Pare  the  fruit  and  remove  the  cores,  fill 
with  butter  and  sugar,  bake  in  a  stew-pan  partly  filled  with 
water,  and  after  a  s>Tup  has  formed  use  it  to  baste  the  fruit 
with. 


222   HANDBOOK  FOE  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Stewed. — If  dried  fruit  is  to  be  used  soak  it  overnight  in  cold 
water,  then  boil  till  done  and  season  to  suit. 

Fresh  fruit  should  be  pared,  cored,  and  quartered,  then  boiled 
in  a  syrup  made  of  water  and  sugar,  one  quart  of  the  former 
to  a  pound  of  the  latter.  Lemon  juice  or  peel,  preferably  the 
latter,  when  added  to  the  fruit  improves  the  taste. 

Peaches. — Stewed. — If  dried  fruit  is  to  be  used  it  should  be 
soaked  in  cold  water  overnight  and  then  boiled  till  it  is  quite 
tender  and  done.     Seasoning  should  be  added  to  suit. 

Fresh  fruit  should  be  pitted,  pared,  and  quartered  and  then 
boiled  the  same  as  appHes.  If  the  skins  are  to  be  left  on,  the 
fruit  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  aU  the  fuzz  removed. 

Prunes. — Stewed. — Soak  the  fruit  overnight  in  cold  water, 
then  boil  done  and  season  to  suit. 

Jams. — Use  a  pound  of  sugar  for  every  pound  of  fruit  and 
boil  to  the  desired  consistency.  Season  to  suit.  Apples  and 
pears  should  be  pared,  cored,  and  quartered;  small  fruit  should 
be  washed  clean,  then  mashed  or  boiled  to  a  pulp  and  prepared 
in  the  same  manner. 

Jellies. — These  are  prepared  from  the  juice  instead  of  from 
the  pulp  of  fruits.  Use  a  pint  of  sugar  to  each  pint  of  strained 
juice  and  boil  till  the  required  consistency  is  reached.  Huckle- 
berries require  less  sweetening  than  any  other  fruit,  while  goose- 
berries require  the  most. 

Pickles. — These  are  fruits,  meats,  or  vegetables  preserved  in 
vinegar.  They  should  never  be  prepared  in  tin  or  iron  vessels, 
since  the  boiUng  vinegar  may  be  so  affected  as  to  render  it 
poisonous.  Only  stone  jars,  glass  or  porcelain  vessels,  or  enamel- 
ware  should  be  used.  The  last-named  should  be  absolutely  free 
from  cracks  or  bruises  where  the  iron  or  tin  may  be  exposed 
to  the  vinegar.  A  wooden  ladle  should  be  used  for  stirring  and 
aU  tin  or  iron  spoons  avoided. 

Beets. — These  should  be  boiled  two  hours,  then  allowed  to  cool. 
Pare  and  sHce  thin  and  cover  with  vinegar  into  which  the  de- 
sired seasoning  has  been  boiled. 

Onions. — Remove  their  skins  and  drop  the  onions  into  salt 
brine  made  strong  enough  to  float  an  egg.  Let  them  stand 
twenty-four  hours,  then  remove  them  from  the  brine  and  cover 
with  seasoned  boihng  vinegar.  If  the  onions  are  pared  under 
water,  juice  from  them  will  not  reach  the  cook's  eyes. 

Mixed. — Add  a  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  a  quart  each  of  finely 


GENERAL   FIELD   WORK  223 

chopped  raw  cabbage  and  boiled  beets.  Add  also  a  teaspoonful 
of  pepper,  a  teacupful  of  finely  grated  horseradish,  and  two 
teacupfuls  of  sugar.     Cover  the  mixtui-e  with  vinegar. 

Sweet. — For  apples,  pears,  peaches,  and  melon  rinds  use  as 
many  pounds  of  sugar  as  of  fruit.  Boil  the  seasoning  into  the 
vinegar  and  use  half  a  pint  of  this  to  three  pounds  of  fruit. 
Cover  the  fruit  with  boiUng  vinegar  prepared  in  this  manner. 

Ginger  Snaps. — Mix  together  one  teacupful  of  molasses,  one 
teaspoonful  of  soda,  half  a  teacupful  of  lard,  and  as  much  ginger 
as  desired.     Add  flour  and  mix  very  stiff.     Bake  in  a  hot  oven. 

Fruit  Pudding. — Add  a  teacupful  each  of  sweet  milk,  minced 
suet,  and  molasses  to  a  teacupful  of  raisins  or  other  fruit.  Mix 
in  enough  broken  bread  to  make  a  stiff  dough,  and  then  steam 
the  mixture  till  it  is  done. 

Pie  Crust. — Add  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  twice  as  much 
baking  powder  to  a  quart  of  flour.  When  these  have  been 
quite  thoroughly  mixed  together  add  enough  sweet  milk  to  make 
stiff  dough.  Fruit  juice  will  not  soak  through  the  crust  if  the 
latter  is  well  spread  over  with  a  beaten  egg. 

Pies. — Fruit. — Prepare  the  crusts  as  above,  place  one  in  the 
pie  pan  after  the  latter  has  been  greased  to  prevent  sticking, 
put  in  the  stewed  fruit,  cover  with  the  other  crust,  close  the 
edges  of  the  two  crusts  well  together,  and  then  bake  in  a  hot  oven. 

Rice. — Use  a  tablespoonful  of  rice  for  each  pie  required  and 
boil  it  till  quite  done.  After  it  has  cooled  add  an  egg  and  fruit 
and  season  to  suit. 

DRINKS 

Coffee. — Pour  a  quart  of  boihng  water  over  a  Uberal  handful 
of  ground  coffee  and  let  it  stand  ten  minutes  before  serving. 
To  settle  the  grounds,  pour  in  about  half  a  teacupful  of  cold 
water  or  drop  a  handful  of  snow  into  the  coffee-pot.  If  such  a  pot 
is  not  available  put  the  ground  coffee  in  the  Dutch  oven  and 
stir  it  as  it  heats.  After  it  has  been  well  heated  pour  boiling 
water  on  it  and  let  it  stand  five  minutes.  Strain  it  through  a 
cloth  and  then  replace  the  liquid  in  the  oven  to  keep  it  hot. 

Tea. — Tea  should  never  be  boiled.  Use  a  very  scant  tea- 
spoonful of  tea  for  each  cupful  required  and  pour  on  boihng 
water.     Let  it  stand  ten  minutes  before  using. 

Cocoa. — As  a  general  rule  it  is  always  more  satisfactory  to 


224   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

everybody  concerned  if  each  man  mixes  his  own  cocoa.  This 
may  be  done  by  mixing  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  very  thoroughly 
into  the  same  amount  of  cocoa,  then  adding  as  much  sweet  milk 
as  may  be  desired  for  the  cup,  and  mixing  it  all  together  until 
no  lumps  remain.  After  this  the  hot  water  may  be  poured  into 
the  cup. 

Chocolate. — Scrape  the  chocolate  from  the  cake  in  a  fine 
powder  and  then  prepare  the  same  as  cocoa. 

Lemonade. — One  lemon  is  sufficient  for  two  glasses  of  this 
drink,  and  should  be  of  the  thin-skinned  variety.  The  tissues 
may  be  broken  up  and  the  juice  released  if  the  lemon  is  rolled 
until  it  becomes  quite  soft.  When  this  has  been  done  it  may 
be  cut  in  haK  and  the  juice  squeezed  out,  or  it  may  be  cut  in 
thin  sHces  and  pressed.  Sugar  and  cold  water  are  added  to  the  juice 
in  amounts  sufficient  to  make  the  lemonade  as  strong  as  desired. 

Beer. — To  five  gallons  of  water  add  haK  a  pint  of  hops  and 
haK  a  peck  (four  quarts)  of  good  wheat  bran.  Boil  this  mix- 
ture till  the  bran  and  hops  sink.  Strain  the  liquid  through  a 
cloth  and  add  two  quarts  of  molasses  as  soon  as  it  becomes 
lukewarm.  After  the  molasses  has  thoroughly  dissolved  pour 
the  mixture  into  a  keg  and  add  a  tablespoonful  of  yeast.  After 
fermentation  ceases  cork  the  keg  for  a  week  before  using  the  beer. 

CARE    OF    COOKING    UTENSILS 

Vessels  in  which  eggs  have  been  prepared  should  either  be 
filled  with  cold  water  and  aUowed  to  stand  for  a  short  time  or 
be  cleaned  immediately  after  the  eggs  have  been  removed. 
Otherwise  the  eggs  will  stick  and  can  be  removed  only  with 
difficulty. 

Milk  vessels  should  be  scalded  when  empty,  thoroughly  dried, 
and  then  set  away  in  such  a  place  and  in  such  a  manner  that 
dust  can  not  enter  them.  Unless  carefuUy  scalded  and  kept 
perfectly  clean  they  soon  become  odorous  and  unsanitary. 

Vessels  in  which  dough  has  been  mixed  should  be  fiUed  with 
cold  water  and  aUowed  to  stand  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  This 
loosens  the  dough  and  permits  its  removal  with  greater  ease. 
Hot  water  wiU  only  serve  to  make  it  stick  worse. 

Rust,  grease,  and  burned  food  may  be  removed  from  cooking 
utensils  by  using  common  earth  or  fine  sand  for  a  scouring  agent. 
If  pans  or  kettles  are  allowed  to  rust,  foodstuffs  will  stick  in 
them  and  can  be  removed  only  by  scouring. 


GENERAL    FIELD    WORK  225 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  crack  or  otherwise  injure  the 
enamel  on  enamelware  dishes.  Such  openings  in  the  enamel 
permit  exposure  of  the  inner  metal,  and  this  soon  rusts. 

Knives,  forks,  and  spoons  may  be  kept  clean  and  bright  by 
tlu-usting  them  into  the  ground  a  number  of  times  before  they 
are  washed,  nearly  all  soils  carrying  sufficient  grit  to  provide 
a  suitable  scouring  agent.  After  these  articles  have  been  washed 
they  should  be  carefully  dried  and  placed  where  snow  or  rain 
can  not  reach  them. 

BUTCHERING 

It  happens  not  infrequently  that  field  men  must  act  as  butchers 
if  they  are  to  secure  fresh  meat,  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that 
a  general  knowledge  of  the  operations  involved  wiU  not  come 
amiss. 

Cattle  and  hogs  are  usually  killed  by  being  shot  or  by  being 
knocked  in  the  head.  Immediately  after  this  has  been  done 
they  are  bled  by  a  thrust  of  a  long-bladed  knife  wliich  enters  the 
heart.  Such  a  knife  should  have  a  very  long,  thin  point  and 
should  be  started  through  the  skin  at  a  point  just  above  the 
animal's  breast-bone.  In  order  to  secure  free  bleeding  at  once, 
the  knife-blade  should  be  aimed  directly  at  the  root  of  the 
animal's  tail.  This  usually  leads  it  directly  into  the  heart. 
Unless  the  blood  gushes  forth  in  a  stream  the  heart  has  not 
been  reached,  and  a  second  thrust,  possibly  a  third  one,  will 
be  necessary. 

Cattle  are  skinned.  In  performing  this  operation  the  skin 
should  first  be  cut  entirely  around  the  legs  at  or  near  the  hoofs. 
It  is  then  spUt  from  this  incision  along  the  inner  side  of  each 
leg  to  the  middle  of  the  lower  side  of  the  body.  Afterward  the 
skin  along  the  entire  under  side  of  the  body  is  spht  open  even 
to  the  tip  of  the  tail.  Another  incision  is  made  around  the 
neck  immediately  to  the  rear  of  the  head,  and  the  skin  is  then 
ready  to  be  removed.  Usually  it  is  removed  from  the  legs  and 
neck  first.  It  may  then  be  stripped  off  either  to  the  rear  or  to 
the  front.  After  this  has  been  done  the  body  is  opened  along 
the  under  side  and  the  internal  organs  are  removed.  A  block 
and  tackle  should  be  provided  and  the  body  hung  up  head 
downward.  In  this  position  the  interior  may  be  dashed  with 
clean  cold  water  and  thus  washed  out.  In  hanging  the  body 
a  30-inch  gambrel  should  be  used.     Its  ends  are  inserted  in  shta 


226   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

cut  through  between  the  ham-strings  and  the  bones  of  the  hind 
legs,  and  it  is  then  hung  from  the  center  to  a  pole  or  the  branch 
of  a  tree.  It  should  be  of  some  tough  wood  and  not  less  than 
3  inches  in  diameter. 

Hogs  are  scalded.^  This  may  be  done  either  by  dipping  the 
body  into  boiUng  water^  or  by  dashing  boihng  water  over  it. 
The  object  of  such  scalding  is  to  loosen  the  bristles  so  they 
may  be  scraped  from  the  skin.  After  the  bristles  have  been 
removed  the  body  is  hung  the  same  as  a  beef,  and  is  otherwise 
treated  in  a  similar  manner  except  that  as  a  general  rule  the 
internal  organs  are  not  removed  until  the  body  has  been  hung. 
An  18-inch  gambrel  2  inches  in  diameter  is  heavy  enough  to 
support  a  400-pound  hog. 

Sheep  and  goats  are  killed  by  having  the  throat  cut  across 
back  of  the  jaws  and  through  to  the  bone  in  the  neck.  The 
animal  is  placed  on  its  back,  the  chin  is  thrust  forward  with  one 
hand  and  the  butcher  then  wields  the  knife  in  the  other.  The 
skin  may  be  removed  and  the  body  further  dressed  the  same  as 
that  of  a  cow.     Use  the  same  size  gambrel  as  for  hogs. 

Sheep-  and  goat-fat  may  be  rendered  into  tallow,  but  should 
not  be  used  for  cooking  purposes,  as  it  has  a  very  strong  and 
disagreeable  odor. 

1  In  some  States  it  is  a  violation  of  law  to  skin  a  hog,  presumably 
because  the  identification  marks  in  the  ears  would  thus  be  removed. 

2  The  most  convenient  method  of  heating  water  in  the  field  is  by 
placing  large,  hot  stones  in  a  barrel  of  water.  The  barrel  should  be 
firmly  fixed  at  an  incline  to  faciUtate  dipping 


LIVE  STOCK 

CARE  OF  HORSES 

Horses  are  not  naturally  vicious  or  otherwise  incorrigibly  in- 
clined, but  such  characteristics  may  develop  as  the  result  of  im- 
proper training  or  treatment,  and  continually  nagging  at  or  un- 
necessarily annoying  an  animal  is  a  practice  that  can  not  be 
too  strongly  condemned.  There  is  a  wide-spread  idea  prevalent 
that  horses  can  neither  think  nor  reason,  but  men  who  have 
spent  years  working  with  or  about  them  will  invariably  dispute 
this  theory. 

Water. — A  horse  can  exist  on  wonderfully  short  rations,  but  it 
is  imperative  that  he  have  a  certain  amount  of  water.  He  should 
not  be  allowed  free  access  to  it,  however,  while  he  is  extremely 
warm  or  fatigued,  nor  should  he  be  given  water  immediately 
after  being  fed,  as  in  this  case  the  water  will  carry  the  grain 
or  forage  directly  into  the  intestines  before  stomachical  digestion 
has  been  completed.  The  invariable  result  of  this  is  colic  in 
more  or  less  severity.  The  best  time  to  water  a  tired  or  warm 
saddle  or  work  animal  is  after  it  has  been  allowed  to  rest  about 
twenty  minutes  and  before  it  is  fed.  Stagnant  or  polluted  water 
should  never  be  given. 

Feed. — Grain. — Various  customs  of  feeding  prevail  in  different 
localities,  and  that  to  which  an  animal  has  been  accustomed 
should  be  followed  whenever  this  is  possible.  Work  animals  in 
the  South  are  usually  fed  grain  and  roughage  three  times  a  day, 
but  in  most  parts  of  the  West  and  Southwest  grain  only  is  fed 
and  but  twice  a  day,  the  animals  being  allowed  to  graze  at 
night  or  at  intervals  during  the  day,  and  thus  secure  the  necessary 
roughage  for  themselves. 

Green  Corn. — This  must  be  fed  in  very  small  quantities  until 
an  animal's  digestive  organs  adjust  themselves  to  the  work  of 
assimilating  it.  Not  more  than  four  ears  should  be  given  at  a 
feed  and  only  twice  daily  for  the  first  two  weeks.  The  amount 
may  then  be  increased  two  or  three  ears.  An  animal  fed  green 
corn  should  have  free  access  to  salt  at  all  times. 

Ear  Corn. — This  constitutes  the  principal  grain  feed  of  the 
227 


228        HANDBOOK    FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

South,  many  portions  of  the  North,  and  practically  all  parts  of 
the  middle  West.  It  is  very  nutritious,  but  creates  too  much 
heat  for  a  steady  diet  or  for  heavy  summer  work.  Moreover, 
animals  unaccustomed  to  eating  it  may  have  considerable  diffi- 
culty at  first  in  shelling  it  from  the  cob,  and  if  they  suffer  from 
bad  teeth  they  will  have  stifi  more  difficulty  in  masticating  it. 
It  is  bulky  and  is  not  satisfactory  grain  to  pack  or  transport  by 
wagon  from  camp  to  camp. 

A  very  common  rule  for  measuring  ear  corn  is  by  the  number 
of  average  ears  locally  considered  as  constituting  a  bushel. 
Eighty  selected  ears  make  a  bushel  in  the  lower  Missouri  vaUey, 
one  hundred  and  twenty  average  ears  are  accepted  as  a  bushel 
throughout  the  middle  West,  but  in  most  parts  of  the  South  and 
Southeast,  where  cHmatic  conditions  are  not  so  favorable  to  the 
production  of  a  good  grade  of  corn,  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  and  sometimes  one  hundred  and  thirty  average  ears  are 
considered  a  bushel.  The  weight  of  a  bushel  of  ear  corn  is 
seventy  pounds,  fourteen  of  which  are  assumed  to  be  the  weight 
of  the  cobs. 

For  medium  heavy^  work,  whether  pack,  saddle,  or  wagon, 
eight  ears  twice  a  day  will  be  sufficient  for  a  thousand-pound 
horse,  but  an  animal  raised  in  the  South  should  have  an  extra 
similar  feed  at  noon.  AU  worm  dust  and  worm-eaten  kernels 
should  be  removed.  In  addition  to  this  amount  of  grain  such 
animals  should  be  given  as  much  roughage  as  they  will  clean 
up  at  a  feed.  Mules  should  be  fed  a  third  less  grain  and  their 
roughage  allowance  should  be  increased  in  proportion.  Burros, 
of  the  t>"pe  commonly  used  in  the  West  for  pack  animals,  can 
seldom  be  induced  to  eat  ear  corn,  and  the  same  is  also  true  of 
Western  range  horses. 

Shelled  Corn. — This  can  not  be  recommended  as  a  satisfactory 
grain  feed.  Animals  that  are  tired,  warm,  or  extremely  hungry 
usually  eat  it  too  hurriedly  and  do  not  crush  it  fine  enough. 
The  result  is  that  a  large  portion  of  it  enters  the  stomach  whole, 
where  it  is  not  only  practically  impervious  to  the  digestive 
juices,  but  is  also  subject  to  such  swelling  that  a  severe  attack 
of  coUc  may  ensue.  Moreover,  when  it  is  improperly  masti- 
cated, it  passes  through  the  aUmentary  canal  without  supplying 
the  required  amount  of  nourishment,  and  is  therefore  a  total  loss. 
It  is  an  especially  dangerous  grain  to  feed  an  animal  with  poor 
teeth  or  one  that  bolts  its  food  as  quickly  as  possible. 


LIVE  STOCK  229 

However,  if  no  other  grain  is  available  shelled  corn  should 
be  fed  very  sparingl}'  with  a  proportionately  larger  amount  of 
roughage.  Two  quarts  twice  a  day  with  roughage  will  be  suf- 
ficient. About  four  average  ears  will  produce  a  quart  when 
shelled  (except  where  eighty  ears  are  considered  a  bushel)  and 
will  weigh  approximately  one  and  three-fourths  pounds.  Water 
should  never  be  supplied  immediately  after  an  animal  has  had 
a  feed  of  shelled  corn,  but  should  always  be  given  at  least  half 
an  hour  before  feeding. 

Oats. — Oats  can  hardly  be  surpassed  for  a  steady  diet  that  will 
impart  strength  and  general  health  to  an  animal,  and  their  use 
is  strongly  recommended  when  they  can  be  secured.  In  most 
States  thirty-two  pounds  constitute  a  bushel,  thus  allowing  one 
pound  to  the  quart.  The  regular  feed  should  be  about  four 
quarts  twice  or  three  times  a  day,  depending  upon  the  work 
being  done  and  the  manner  of  feeding  to  which  the  animal  is 
accustomed. 

Barley. — -This  constitutes  the  chief  gi-ain  feed  in  many  of  the 
Western  States,  where  it  is  crushed  or  rolled  and  put  up  in  sacks, 
usually  of  seventy  pounds,  although  in  some  localities  a  sack 
may  hold  as  much  as  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds.  A  seventy- 
pound  sack  provides  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  feeds. 

Wheat. — In  view  of  the  fact  that  wheat  sweUs  when  moist,  it 
is  not  a  very  satisfactory  horse  feed,  although,  after  an  animal 
has  become  weU  accustomed  to  eating  it,  no  iU  effects  follow. 
However,  it  is  always  advisable  to  have  it  thoroughly  soaked 
before  it  is  given  an  animal.  The  amount  given  at  one  feed 
should  not  exceed  one-half  gallon,  which  weighs  approximately 
four  pounds.     It  is  a  common  grain-feed  in  the  Northwest. 

Bran. — This  acts  chiefly  as  a  laxative,  possesses  a  very  low 
nutritive  value,  and  should  be  fed  once  a  week  merely  as  an 
aid  in  keeping  an  animal's  digestive  apparatus  in  good  condition. 
It  should  be  moistened  and  mixed  until  it  will  not  be  blown  about 
by  the  animal's  breath.  If  a  scant  handful  of  salt  is  added  to 
the  feed  it  wiU  prove  more  appetizing  and  wiU  be  eaten  with 
greater  relish.     One  gallon  is  sufficient  for  a  feed. 

Roughage. — This  may  consist  of  green  range  grass,  tame 
grasses,  or  hays  and  fodders.  The  first  is  the  most  common 
form  of  roughage  in  the  West,  while  the  other  forms  are  in 
common  use  throughout  the  middle  West  and  all  sections  of 
the  South. 


230        HANDBOOK    FOR   RA.NGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

Range  Grasses. — There  are  so  many  varieties  of  these,  such  as 
the  different  gramas,  blue  grasses,  rye  grasses,  broom  grasses, 
and  others,  that  the  subject  can  not  be  discussed  in  detail  here. 
A  general  treatise  on  range  plants  can  be  secured,  and  the  field 
man  should  study  it  carefully  at  leisure  times.  ^ 

Ta7?ie  Grasses. — Few  of  these  appear  on  open  range  lands,  but 
a  large  variety  will  be  found  in  the  pastures  throughout  the 
East,  South,  Southeast,  and  middle  West.  Chief  among  them 
may  be  mentioned  blue  grass,  Johnson  grass,  blue  stem,  crab 
grass,  foxtail,  timothy,  alfalfa,  and  clover.  An  animal  should 
not  be  allowed  free  access  to  any  green  feed  until  it  has  become 
more  or  less  accustomed  to  eating  it.  Wet  or  dewy  clover  is 
especially  liable  to  cause  colic. 

Hay. — AKalfa  is  the  principal  hay  used  in  the  West  and 
Southwest.  The  first  cutting  may  affect  an  animal's  kidneys, 
and  since  an  inexperienced  person  can  hardly  be  expected  to 
distinguish  between  this  and  subsequent  cuttings  he  should 
take  care  not  to  feed  too  much  alfalfa  hay  until  he  is  sure  it 
is  having  no  ill  effects.  Customarily  from  twenty-eight  to 
thirty-four  bales  are  considered  a  ton. 

Timothy  hay  is  very  common  to  the  South,  and  can  hardly 
be  excelled  for  a  steady  roughage  diet.  From  twenty-eight  to 
thirty-three  bales  usually  constitute  a  ton,  although  bales  may 
weigh  as  much  as  one  hundred  and  twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds 
in  some  locaUties.  In  such  a  case  sixteen  bales  are  considered 
a  ton. 

Clover  hay,  also  common  to  the  South  and  weighing  about  the 
same  as  timothy,  is  a  very  satisfactory  roughage  if  properly  cured, 
but  it  molds  so  easily  if  stored  away  damp  that  a  large  per  cent 
of  it  is  usually  unfit  for  horse  feed,  although  it  is  apparently 
rehshed  by  cattle. 

Any  good  grade  of  hay  carries  a  large  amount  of  leaves  and 
blossoms  or  "  flowers,"  is  free  from  coarse  stems,  weeds,  trash, 
and  other  such  materials,  and  is  of  a  bright  green  color. 

Fodders. — These  may  be  whole  stalks,  tops,  or  blades  of  corn, 
cane,  or  Kaffir  corn.  Whole  stalks  do  not  make  satisfactory 
roughage  by  reason  of  the  large  amount  of  waste  in  the  butts. 


1  See  Notes  on  National  Forest  Range  Plants,  Part  1,  Grasses,  l)y  th3 
Office  of  Grazing  Studies,  Forest  Service. 


LIVE    STOCK 


231 


Top  fodders  and  blades  are  usually  eaten  up  clean  and  little  or 
no  waste  remains. 

Salt. — Herbivorous  animals  obtain  so  little  salt  in  their  nat- 
ural foods  and  require  so  much  salt  in  the  proper  digestion  of 
such  foods  that  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  field  man,  or  any  other 
stock-owTier,  to  see  that  it  is  supphed  in  sufficient  amounts  and 
in  such  a  manner  that  animals  may  have  free  access  to  it  at 
all  times.  This  can  best  be  done  by  placing  the  salt  in  a  box 
where  the  animals  may  hck  it  as  they  desire.  The  rock  salt, 
so  much  in  favor  among  cattle-0"^Tiers,  is  not  recommended  for 
horses,  the  construction  of  their  tongues  being  such  that  they 
can  not  secure  salt  from  a  hard  mass  as  readily  as  cattle  may. 
Regular  table  salt  is  somewhat  more  expensive  than  rock  salt, 
but  on  account  of  its  greater  strength  and  purity  and  the  ease 
with  which  a  horse  may  secure  it,  it  is  recommended  in  preference 
to  the  rock  salt.  An  average  handful  once  a  week  will  prove 
sufficient. 

SHOEING 

Elit. — If  a  man  must  shoe  his  own  animals  he  should  provide 
himself  with  the  kit  of  tools  sho\Mi  in  Fig.  196.     This  includes 


Hoof-parers. 


Nippers. 


Shoeing  hammer. 


Paring  knife. 


U.^- -. 


Basp. 


Toe  knife. 


F:g.  196. — Horseshoer's  kit. 


Buffer. 


232   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

a  pair  of  hoof-parers,  a  pair  of  cutting  nippers,  a  hammer,  a 
paring  knife,  rasp,  toe  knife,  and  buffer,  and  costs  from  $3.50 
to  $5.00.  The  14-inch  parers,  rasp,  and  nippers  are  recommended. 
Ordinarily  he  will  be  able  to  secure  parers,  rasp,  nippers,  and 
hammer  by  requisition. 

Before  he  attempts  to  shoe  an  animal  he  should  learn  some- 
thing of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  hoof,  and  thereby 
avoid  mistakes  so  commonly  made  by  amateur  shoers. 

Hoof. — The  hoof  is  provided  as  a  means  of  protection  to  the 
deUcate  nerves,  membranes,  and  fibers  that  compose  the  foot. 
It  is  a  tough,  horny,  fibrous  substance,  the  fibers  extending  ver- 
tically and  parallel  with  each  other,  and  secretes  an  oil  the 
object  of  which  is  to  exclude  external  moisture  and  to  retain 
internal  moisture.  The  growi:h  is  from  the  upper  edge  or  coro- 
net do\sTiward  and  occurs  at  the  rate  of  from  3  to  4  inches  a 

year.  In  thickness  it  varies 
Cannon  Bone — //f  |i       ^^  ^om  M"  to  ^/^-Inch  at  thc  lower 

DpperPastern--___  i(i^  "^"^""^  edge  to  about  3^-iiich  at  the  ex- 

LowerPastem^i^^^':^^^''L^otie         trcme  uppcr  cdgc  at  the  coronet. 

(or  Coronatv)  ^^j^^5f>;^av\e»^  .■,■,,,  i  i 

Coffin  Bon^-^^^^rrHperforane  Tendon  From  the  lattcr    cdge    dowTi- 

^^^^^^sensitive  Frog  Ward  the  iucrcase  in  thickness  is 

CROSS  SECTIOnOfTooT--^ //o^'f"-e  So;.  -j      ,  ■      x        U  A  *         1, 

SIDE  VIEW  ^^°r^^  Soje  rapid  to  a  pomt  about  one  mch 

"^  below  the    coronet   from   where 

Fig.  197.  it  is  practically  uniform  to  the 

lower  edge. 

It  is  generally  conceded  by  horsemen  and  shoers  that  white 
or  striped  hoofs  are  not  as  strong  and  tough  as  black  hoofs. 

Parts  of  the  Hoof. — These  are  the  sole,  frog,  heel,  toe,  walls, 
bars,  and  coronet. 

Each  has  its  particular  function  to  perform,  and  lameness  or 
other  trouble  will  occur  if  normal  action  is  interrupted  by  care- 
less attention  or  improper  shoeing.  It  is  therefore  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  each  part  be  given  due  consideration  when  old 
shoes  are  to  be  removed  or  new  ones  are  to  be  nailed  on. 

Sole. — This  is  the  portion  of  the  hoof  presented  to  the  ground 
and  is  thickest  at  the  edges  where  it  meets  the  hoof  waUs  and 
thinnest  at  the  center  along  the  edges  of  the  frog.  It  grows 
from  the  sensitive  sole  above,  the  dead  or  worn-out  tissues 
peehng  from  the  under  surface  in  flakes.  Lameness  will  result 
if  the  sole  is  pared  away  too  thin. 

Frog. — This  extends  in  a  V-shape  from  the  rear  of  the  hoof 


LIVE   STOCK  233 

to  or  near  the  center  of  the  sole,  the  partly  cleft  wide  end  being 
at  the  rear.  A  cleft  also  extends  along  either  side  and  serves 
to  increase  the  flexibiUty  of  the  sole's  connection  with  the  frog. 
The  gro\\i:h  is  from  the  sensitive  frog  above.  Its  functions  are 
similar  to  those  of  a  cushion  which  prevents  jars,  and  it  also 
acts  as  a  wedge  which  keeps  the  heel  well  spread,  thereby  main- 
taining a  wider  sole  base.  In  unshod  horses  it  prevents  slipping 
or  shding  forward  or  sidewise.  It  should  be  left  free  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  ground  and  should  not  be  pared  deeply, 
since  the  dead  tissues  will  wear  away  fast  enough  against  the 
ground. 

Heel. — This  is  located  at  the  rear  of  the  hoof  and  is  appar- 
ently an  upward  extension  and  termination  of  the  frog.  It  acts 
as  a  protection  to  the  attachment  of  various  tendons  and  Uga- 
ments,  serves  as  a  brace  to  prevent  the  hoof  from  turning  side- 
wise,  and  provides  a  cushion  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  frog, 
absorbs  most  of  the  shock  in  fast  or  rough  travel.  It  needs  no 
attention  in  shoeing  unless  old  injuries  have  caused  the  forma- 
tion of  large  or  hard  scales  or  scabs.  In  that  case  it  may  be- 
come necessary  to  remove  these  in  order  that  they  may  not 
hang  in  brush  or  rocks  and  tear  out  or  otherwise  injure  the  hoof. 

Toe. — This  is  the  lower  forward  edge  of  the  hoof.  It  assists 
the  animal  in  securing  a  fii'm  footing  and  should  be  especially 
strong  and  healthy.  The  forward  or  outer  upright  portion 
should  not  be  pared  away  deeply  to  make  it  fit  the  shoe.  Such 
trimming  not  only  causes  improper  traveling  by  shortening  the 
toe  and  causing  an  animal  to  "  break  over  "  too  quickl}-,  but 
also  weakens  the  hoof  seriously.  Furthermore,  it  removes  a 
portion  of  the  hoof  wall  which  secretes  the  hoof  oil  and  thus 
aUows  a  certain  amount  of  external  moisture  to  enter  and  more 
or  less  of  the  internal  moisture  to  escape.  It  is  permissible,  how- 
ever, and  even  advisable,  to  rasp  away  the  short,  sharp,  ragged 
edge  that  may  project  shghtly  over  the  shoe. 

Walls. — These  are  the  upright  portions  of  the  hoof.  They 
serve  as  a  protection  to  a  number  of  joints  and  tendon  and 
hgament  attachments  which  occur  at  a  point  where  compact- 
ness of  arrangement  is  essential.  Like  the  edge  of  the  toe  they 
should  not  be  rasped  away  very  deeph^,  if  at  aU. 

Bars. — These  appear  in  the  shape  of  ridges,  one  along  either 
side  of  the  frog,  beginning  at  the  heel  wall  and  exi;ending  to 
the  forward  end  of  the  frog.     They  act  as  reenforcements  to  the 


234   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

parts  of  the  sole  immediately  adjacent  to  the  frog  and  also 
serve  as  a  means  of  protection  to  the  sides  of  the  frog.  They 
should  not  be  pared  away. 

Coronet. — This  is  found  at  the  junction  of  the  hair  and  the 
hoof.  Its  function  is  to  produce  hoof  material,  and  the  health 
and  strength  of  the  hoof  depend  upon  its  healthy  condition. 
Bruises  or  sUght  punctures  made  in  it  remain  in  the  hoof  wall 
until  the  downward  growth  removes  them  at  the  lower  edge  of 
the  hoof.^  The  most  common  injury  to  the  coronet,  aside  from 
wire  cuts  and  injuries  from  nails  and  similar  articles,  occurs  as 
the  result  of  a  bruise,  appears  in  the  form  of  an  abscess,  and 
is  known  as  "  quittor."     (See  page  256.) 

Holding  the  Feet. — In  holding  a  forefoot  the  shoer  should 
place  the  cannon-bone  or  pastern  joint  between  his  knees  as  he 
stands  with  his  back  toward  the  animal's  head;  a  hind  foot 
is  held  most  conveniently  if  he  places  the  cannon  bone  over  his 
thigh  and  allows  the  pastern  joint  to  rest  against  his  knees. 
A  vicious  animal  should  be  throwTi  or  have  its  forefeet  tied 
up  close  to  the  elbows  and  the  hind  feet  tied  to  the  tail,  or  fas- 
tened as  shown  in  Fig.  198.  BUndfolding  is  also  an  effective 
means  of  control;  it  may  be  done  by  fastening  a  coat  or  a  feed- 
sack  over  the  animal's  eyes,  the  coat-arms  being  tied  together 
beneath  its  jaws,  or  the  sack-ends  thrust  under  the  cheeks  of  a 
halter,  hackamore,  or  bridle.  The  shoer  should  not  touch  a 
blindfolded  animal  until  he  has  spoken  to  it  and  made  it  aware 
of  his  presence.  Brutal  treatment  is  never  effective  and  only 
serves  to  make  a  fractious  animal  less  tractable  during  future 
operations  of  shoeing. 

Removal  of  Shoes. — Shoes  that  have  been  worn  so  long  that 

1  Strictly  speaking,  these  so-called  scars  are  less  in  the  nature  of 
scars  themselves  than  continuations  of  scars  appearing  in  the  coronet. 
They  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  hoof  walls  that  a  crack,  ridge,  or 
other  unnatural  growth  resulting  from  an  injury  to  the  matrix  bears 
to  the  human  toe-  or  finger-nail.  Such  a  growth  on  the  hoof  merely 
indicates  that  the  coronet  has  at  some  previous  time  been  more  or 
less  severely  injured  and  that  its  functions  have  been  impaired  to  a 
degree  which  rendered  it  incapable  of  producing  normal  and  imiform 
hoof  material  at  the  point  of  injury.  Therefore,  originating  in  an 
irregular  and  gnarled  condition,  that  portion  of  the  wall  growing  from 
the  scarred  point  of  the  coronet  remains  so  and  thus  appears  in  a  form 
which  may  lead  an  inexperienced  person  to  beheve  that  the  injury 
itself  extended  from  the  coronet  completely  through  and  to  the  lower 
edge  of  the  hoof  wall. 


LIVE    STOCK  235 

the  hoofs  have  grown  out  long  and  narrow  should  be  removed, 
and  if  possible  the  animal  should  be  allowed  to  go  without 
shoes  for  a  week  or  two;  this  permits  the  hoofs  to  wear  down 
evenly  and  naturally  and  also  allows  them  to  spread  and  regain 
whatever  shape  may  have  been  lost  as  the  result  of  the  shoes' 
protection.      Constant  wearing  of  shoes  soon  tends  to  narrow  the 


Fig.  198. — Shoeing  rig. 

hoof  and  this  results  in  an  unnatural  strain  on  the  tendons  as 
the  animal  tries  to  keep  the  hoof  from  tipping. 

Clinches  should  be  cut  away  first,  and  when  this  has  been 
done  the  nippers  are  forced  between  the  shoe  and  one  side  of 
the  heel  and  the  handles  are  then  forced  downward.  As  soon 
as  the  shoe  has  been  loosened  it  may  be  tapped  back  into  place, 
leaving  the  nail  head  protruding  far  enough  to  be  seized  and 
drawn  with  the  nippers. 

The  other  side  of  the  heel  is  then  treated  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  when  the  rear  nails  have  been  drawn  the  shoe  may  be  tipped 
do^Tiward  toward  the  toe  and  the  remaining  nails  pulled.  If  one 
whole  side  of  the  shoe  is  removed  first  and  the  shoe  is  then 
tipped  sidewise  over  the  edge  of  the  hoof  it  may  cause  the  wall 
to  be  broken  or  torn  as  the  nails  are  forced  out. 

Leveling  the  Hoof. — Long  edges  are  cut  away  with  the  parers. 
If  the  latter  are  of  the  variety  having  only  one  cutting  edge  this 
edge  is  placed  toward  the  center  of  the  foot,  the  blunt  jaw 
being  brought  to  bear  against  the  outer  side  of  the  wall.  When 
the  rougher  edges  have  been  thus  cut  away  smaller  irregularities 


236   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

may  be  removed  with  the  paring  knife.  Finally  the  rasp  is 
used,  and  last,  by  means  of  the  paring  knife,  the  central  por- 
tions of  the  sole  are  trimmed  down  till  the  shoe  wiU  rest 
directly  against  the  lower  edges  of  the  walls.  If  it  is  allowed 
to  bear  against  the  sole  too  far  in  from  the  walls  corns  may 
result. 

Fitting  the  Shoe. — Malleable  shoes  must  be  used  when  no 
forge  and  anvil  are  available.  These  may  be  fitted  cold  and 
are  recommended  for  use  by  field  men  who  are  not  familiar  with 
the  use  of  a  forge.  The  practice  of  applying  a  hot  shoe  to  the 
hoof  for  the  purpose  of  burning  the  latter  down  till  it  fits  the 
shoe  is  one  to  be  avoided;  the  shoe  should  be  shaped  to  fit  the 
hoof.  Prehminary  fitting  may  result  in  the  shght  scorching  of 
the  hoof,  but  one  or  two  light  appHcations  of  the  shoe  should 
be  sufficient  to  show  what  changes  must  be  made  in  its 
shape. 


Shoe  properly  fitted.     Toe  cut  away  to  fit  the  shoe. 
Fig.  199. 


It  should  be  wide  enough  at  the  heel  to  prevent  it  from  rest- 
ing against  the  frog,  and  the  outer  edges  should  be  flush  with 
the  edges  of  the  hoof.  For  proper  and  improper  fitting  see 
Fig.  199. 

Attaching  the  Shoe. — Under  ordinary  circumstances  it  is  most 
convenient  to  drive  one  of  the  rear  nails  first.  Careful  inspec- 
tion of  a  horse  nail  will  show  the  point  beveled  to  one  side. 
In  driving  the  nail  this  bevel  is  placed  toward  the  center  of  the 
foot  and  thus  leads  the  nail  out  of  rather  than  into  the  hoof 
wall..  After  the  nail  has  been  driven  up  close,  the  protruding 
point  is  twisted  off  with  the  claws  of  the  hammer,  and  the  oppo- 


LIVE   STOCK 


23; 


site  nail  at  the  rear  is  driven  in  a  similar  manner.  Remaining 
nails  are  then  driven  as  convenience  dictates. 

In  verj'  flaring  hoofs  nails  should  be  set  slightly  outside  of 
a  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  shoe,  but  in  very  straight 
hoofs  it  may  be  necessary  to  set  them  either  perpendicularly 
to  the  shoe  or  even  inside  of  a  perpendicular. 

Finishing. — When  all  the  nails  have  been  driven  they  are  "  set  " 
securely  by  holding  the  buffer  against  the  clinches  and  tapping 
the  heads  sharply  with  the  hammer.  Hammering  should  not, 
however,  be  unnecessarily  violent.  When  they  have  been  set, 
then  the  chnches  are  cUpped  back  to  not  more  than  3^-inch 
in  length  and  are  then  flattened  against  the  hoof  waU  after 
the  ragged  edges  of  the  nails  and  the  nail  holes  have  been  rasped 
away.  All  sharp  edges  extending  over  the  edge  of  the  shoe  are 
also  rasped  away. 

Shoeing  Mules. — Mules  are  shod  the  same  as  horses  except 
that  differently  shaped  shoes  are  used,  as  sho^Ti  in  Fig.  200. 


Fig.  200. — Shoes. 


238   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

This  difference  is  made  necessary  by  the  longer  and  narrower 
hoof,  which  requires  a  broader  heel-base  for  proper 
support. 

Shoeing  Saddle  Animals. — Many  horsemen  prefer  plain  shoes 
for  saddle  animals,  but  for  travel  in  a  mountainous  country  heel 
calks  are  recommended.  They  should  not  exceed  ^-inch  in 
height  and  should  not  be  set  further  than  3^-inch  back  of  the 
heels.  Toe  calks  are  not  recommended  for  saddle  animals  but 
are  very  satisfactory  for  use  on  draft  animals. 

HOBBLING 

Double  Hobbles. — These  may  be  attached  to  either  the  fore- 
legs or  the  hind  legs,  although  they  are  seldom  used  on  the  latter. 
They  should  be  buckled  about  the  legs  just  above  or  below  the 
pasterns  and  should  not  be  drawn  so  tight  as  to  impede  circu- 
lation of  the  blood. 

A  very  satisfactory  substitute  for  leather  hobbles  may  be 
had  by  using  a  rope,  preferably  of  cotton.  This  is  looped  about 
one  leg,  twisted  about  itself  for  a  distance  of  approximately  8 
inches,  then  tied  around  the  other  leg. 

Picket  Hobble. — The  conmion  practice  of  buckling  a  picket 
hobble  to  the  foreleg  is  one  to  be  avoided;  an  animal  tied  in 
this  manner  will  invariably  throw  itself  and  possibly  sustain 
severe  injuries  if  it  becomes  frightened  and  attempts  to  run. 
The  safest  method  is  to  attach  the  hobble  to  a  hind  leg,  thus 
leaving  the  animal's  forelegs  free  and  allowing  it  greater  freedom 
of  motion  if  it  does  start  to  fall.  The  probabiHty  of  stifling 
an  animal  by  attaching  the  picket  hobble  to  a  hind  leg 
is  small,  a  wide-spread  behef  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
Furthermore,  if  a  hind  leg  is  hobbled,  there  is  little  or 
no  danger  of  rope  "  burns "  being  inflicted  on  the  other 
legs. 

Side  Hobbles. — These  may  be  used  on  an  animal  that  has 
become  so  adept  in  the  manipulation  of  regular  double  hobbles 
that  they  no  longer  serve  as  an  adequate  means  of  confining  it 
to  a  limited  area. 

Ordinary  double  hobbles  are  used,  however,  but  the  short 
chain  that  connects  them  is  replaced  by  a  longer  one  and  the 
two  legs  on  one  side  are  fastened  together.  When  first  used 
on  an  animal  this  chain  should  be  long  enough  to  allow  the 


LIVE  STOCK 


239 


legs  and  feet  to  assume  their  natural  position  as  the  animal 
stands  still;  it  is  shortened  as  the  animal  learns  to  travel 
better. 

Such  a  method  of  hobbling  is  known  in  the  South  as  "  side 
Uning." 

It  seldom  proves  effective  on  a  horse  that  paces. 

Cross  Hobbles. — These  are  attached  to  the  front  and  hind 
legs  of  opposite  sides  as  shown  in  Fig.  201,  and  are  especially 
effective  when  double  hobbles  or  side  hobbles  fail  to  prevent 


Fig.  201. — Cross  hobble. 


an  animal  from  straying  long  distances.  The  method  is  known 
in  the  South  as  "  cross  Uning." 

Horseshoe  Hobbles. — These  are  for  use  on  an  animal  that 
stands  quiet  while  being  approached  but  manages  to  keep  just 
out  of  reach  and  thereby  avoid  being  caught.  An  ordinary 
horseshoe  is  shpped  about  the  leg  over  the  cannon-bone  and 
pushed  downward  till  it  fits  moderately  tight.  It  usually  pre- 
vents an  animal  from  running. 

Chaining. — This  method  of  preventing  an  animal  from  stray- 
ing or  from  running  away  when  approached  consists  merely  of 
linking  a  chain  into  a  single,  or  picket,  hobble;  when  the  animal 
starts  to  run  the  chain  whips  the  other  legs.  Such  a  chain 
should  be  about  2  feet  long. 

An  animal  that  is  hobbled  should  not  be  picketed  at  the 
same  time;  it  is  not  only  a  dangerous  practice,  but  is  also  quite 
mmecessary. 


240   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


1.  Nose 

2.  Cheek 

3.  Jaw 

4.  Side  of  head 

5.  Face 

6.  Neck 

7.  Mane 

8.  GuUet 

9.  Withers 

10.  Shoulder 

11.  Arm 

12.  Elbow 

13.  Caston 


Fig.  202. — Parts  of  the  horse. 


14.  Knee 

15.  Cannon 

16.  Ankle 

17.  Pastern 

18.  Hoof 

19.  Back 

20.  Loins 

21.  Rump  or  croup 

22.  Ribs 

23.  Flank 

24.  Hip 

25.  Thigh 

26.  Buttock 


27.  BeUy 

28.  Stifle 

29.  Umbilicus 

30.  Sheath 

31.  Chestnut 

32.  Fetlock 

33.  Breast 

34.  Hock 

35.  Leg  or  stifle 

36.  Coronet 

37.  PoU 

38.  Chin 


DISEASES 
1.  HORSES 

Horses  are  susceptible  to  such  a  multitude  of  ailments  and 
injuries  that  a  comprehensive  treatise  on  the  subject  would  re- 
quire a  volume  too  large  and  too  expensive  for  the  field  man  to 
carry  about  in  his  pack;  consequently  only  the  more  common 
diseases,  particularly  those  which  may  be  expected  to  develop 
in  the  field,  will  be  considered  here. 

Wind  Colic. — Causes. — Overfeeding,  watering  while  hot,  use  of 
feed  to  which  the  animal  has  not  yet  become  accustomed,  ordi- 
nary indigestion  resulting  from  improper  mastication,  or  sys- 
temic disorders.  The  affection  is  not  contagious,  infectious,  or 
in  the  nature  of  an  epidemic. 


LIVE   STOCK  241 

Symptoms. — The  animal  lies  down  frequently  but  soon  gets 
up  and  walks  about  with  short  irregular  steps  and  with  the  back 
"  humped,"  it  looks  back  at  the  sides  and  flanks,  which  may- 
be distended  or  appear  bloated,  and  the  bowels  are  clogged. 
This  condition  of  the  bowels  is  directly  responsible  for  all  the 
symptoms  displayed;  gases  generated  by  fermentation  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  are  not  allowed  to  es- 
cape, and  the  result  is  that  these  organs  soon  become  distended 
to  an  extent  that  subjects  other  internal  organs  to  severe  pres- 
sure and  thereby  interferes  with  their  normal  action. 

Treatment. — Apply  turpentine  to  the  back  immediately  in 
front  of  the  hip  "coupling";  such  apphcations  may  also  be 
made  to  the  umbiUcus.  (See  Fig.  202.)  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  rub  the  turpentine  in  or  to  confine  it  to  one  spot  by  means 
of  bandages,  or  bhstering  and  removal  of  hair  will  result.  An 
ounce  of  chloral  hydrate  is  also  good.  The  animal  should  be 
kept  rather  strenuously  exercised,  and  such  other  measures  as 
will  tend  to  keep  the  bowels  open  should  be  adopted. 

As  a  general  rule  wind  colic  is  not  fatal. 

Many  horses  are  so  constituted  as  to  suffer  an  attack  nearly 
every  day,  and  always  on  the  slightest  change  of  feed. 

Spasmodic  Colic. — Causes. — The  chief  cause  of  this  affection  is 
the  accumulation  of  large  masses  of  indigested  material  in  the 
intestines,  preventing  escape  of  the  gases  arising  from  fermen- 
tation, and  thereby  causing  great  pressure  against  the  internal 
organs.  This  pressure  is  responsible  for  the  internal  pains 
suffered. 

Symptoms. — Similar  to  those  manifested  in  common  wind 
colic  but  more  pronounced;  roUing  is  more  vigorous  and  more 
pain  is  apparent,  excessive  perspiration  may  appear,  and  in 
advanced  stages  the  ears  and  nose  become  cold;  spasms  of  pain 
are  intermittent  with  brief  periods  of  comparative  rehef,  and 
each  spasm  is  more  severe  than  the  preceding  one. 

Treatment. — Action  must  be  prompt  as  soon  as  the  symp- 
toms are  recognized.  Drench  with  a  quart  of  warm  water  into 
which  a  teacupful  of  Epsom  salt  has  been  thoroughly  boiled. 
(For  Drenching,  see  page  267,)  Repeat  the  dose  if  favorable 
results  are  not  obtained  within  an  hour.  Chloral  hydrate  may 
also  be  given,  the  same  as  for  wind  cohc. 

If  neither  of  these  treatments  proves  effective  an  attempt 
should  be  made  to  remove  the  obstruction  from  the  intestines 


242   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

by  hand.  A  viciously  inclined  animal  may  be  thrown  or  it 
may  be  tied  as  shown  in  Fig.  198.  After  this  has  been  done, 
and  before  the  operation  proper  begins,  the  attendant  should 
have  his  hand  and  arm  well  oiled  or  greased  in  order  that  none 
of  the  delicate  membranes  encountered  may  be  abraded.  Ordi- 
narily the  intestines  are  clogged  at  a  point  where  the  obstruc- 
tion may  be  reached  and  removed  by  hand. 

Another  method  of  removing  the  obstruction,  by  relaxation 
of  the  intestine  walls,  is  to  place  a  twist  or  a  large  handful  of 
leaf  tobacco  as  far  up  in  the  intestines  as  it  may  be  forced  by 
hand. 

Large  injections  of  warm  water  may  also  bring  relief. 

If  none  of  these  remedies  gives  relief,  the  animal  may  be 
tapped,  but  this  operation  should  be  performed  only  by  a  com- 
petent veterinarian,  and  the  adoption  of  such  a  method  by  an 
inexperienced  person  is  not  recommended. 

Founder. — Causes. — This  is  due,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  to 
over-feeding  or  over-watering  while  an  animal  is  very  warm 
or  tired,  but  it  may  occur  as  the  result  of  hard  driving  over  a 
rough  road.  It  attacks  the  forefeet,  the  hoofs  of  which  even- 
tually grow  out  long  and  irregular  and  tiu-n  up  at  the  toe;  the 
soles  are  also  affected  and  may  protrude  do-^Tiward  to  an  extent 
that  prevents  the  edges  of  the  hoof  from  resting  on  the  ground. 

Symptoms. — These  are  frequently,  but  not  always,  preceded  by 
symptoms  of  colic.  The  feet  are  extended  forward,  and  as  much 
of  the  body's  weight  as  possible  is  borne  on  the  heels,  the  hind 
feet  are  brought  weU  forward  under  the  body  to  relieve  the 
forefeet  of  pressure,  breathing  may  be  laborious,  pulse  rapid, 
nostrils  dilated,  hoofs  painful  and  feverish,  and  the  animal  may 
he  down  for  long  periods. 

Treatment. — Make  alternate  applications  of  hot  and  cold 
water  to  the  hoofs  for  two  or  thi-ee  hours;  give  haK  an  ounce 
of  nitrate  of  potash  in  the  drinking  water  twdce  a  day,  and 
provide  clean  bedding,  a  roomy  staU,  and  plenty  of  rest. 

Distemper. — ^This  disease  (fehris  pyogenica)  is  confined  chiefly 
to  young  horses,  seldom  attacks  mules,  and  generally  leaves  an 
animal  immune  from  further  attacks.  It  ranges  from  an  almost 
imperceptible  form  to  maUgnant  distemper,  and  is  correspond- 
ingly serious  in  its  effects. 

Causes. — Contact  with  infected  animals  or  surroundings. 

Symptoms. — Slight  or  marked  fever,  depending  upon  the  gen- 


LIVE   STOCK  243 

eral  physical  condition  of  the  animal,  appears  first.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  watery  discharge  of  a  whitish  color  coming  from  the 
nose  and  air  passages;  there  is  loss  of  appetite,  sluggishness  is 
noticeable,  shght  chills  occur,  the  coat  is  rough  and  dry  and  the 
hair  stands  erect;  the  animal  has  a  dejected  appearance,  and 
stands  with  low-hung  head  and  with  the  ears  back.  Frequent 
sneezing  or  coughing  produces  sounds  which  indicate  surplus 
moisture  in  the  lungs  and  air  passages.  Repeated  attempts  to 
drink  result  in  the  greater  part  of  the  water  being  spilled  from 
the  mouth,  this  being  due  to  a  sore  throat.  The  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  gradually  changes  from  a  whitish  to  a  bluish  color, 
becomes  sticky  and  thicker,  finally  turns  to  a  yellowish  color, 
and  increases  in  volume.  Cessation  of  fever  indicates  a  fuUy 
developed  stage  of  the  disease,  and,  conversely,  the  fever  dis- 
appears at  this  stage.  A  sweUing  at  the  forward  part  of  the 
throat  distends  the  parts  beneath  the  jaws  and  is  decidedly 
puffed  and  very  sensitive  to  the  touch,  becoming  more  so  as 
the  disease  progresses.  ReUef  is  at  once  apparent  as  soon  as 
this  sweUing  breaks,  and  in  case  it  does  not  break  of  its  ovm 
accord  it  should  be  lanced  when  it  appears  to  have  reached 
the  point  of  greatest  distention,  and  the  pus  allowed  to  escape. 

The  discharge  from  it,  and  from  other  abscesses  that  may 
appear  on  the  sides  of  the  head  or  at  other  points  on  the  body, 
stops  in  from  two  to  five  days.  The  animal  should  experience 
no  permanent  ill  effects  from  the  disease  unless  perhaps  it  may 
be  left  a  "  roarer." 

Treatment. — After  the  discharges  have  been  stopped,  provide 
fresh,  clean  quarters,  clean  feed  and  water,  and  plenty  of  rest 
for  complete  recovery.  Keep  the  animal  warm.  To  reduce  fever 
give  a  handful  of  Glauber  salts  three  times  a  day. 

If  infection  of  other  animals  is  undesirable  the  sick  animal 
should  be  kept  in  secluded  quarters  at  least  100  yards  from 
other  stock.  Wholesale  infection  may  eventually  prove  best, 
however,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  so  far  as  a  particular  herd  is 
concerned  the  trouble  is  over  for  aU  time. 

Glanders — Farcy. — The  average  horseman  attempts  to  classify 
glanders  and  farcy  as  two  separate  and  distinct  diseases,  when  as 
a  matter  of  fact  the  latter  is  simply  an  external  indication  of 
the  presence  of  the  former.  Veterinarians  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  combat  the  disease  successfully,  and  the  most  rehable 
method  of  treatment  is  to  kill  the  animal  as  soon  as  it  is  defin- 


244   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

itely  known  to  be  infected.  The  disease  may  be  temporarily 
checked  or  even  forced  into  a  dormant  stage,  but  eventually  it 
reappears  and  always  with  fatal  results.  Such  a  stage  of  dor- 
mancy may  cover  a  period  of  months  or  even  years,  but  no  per- 
manent relief  other  than  shooting  is  possible. 

The  disease  is  infectious  and  contagious,  and  the  animal  should 
be  quarantined  as  soon  as  the  symptoms  are  recognized.  Nearly 
all  State  legislatures  have  enacted  laws  requiring  owners  of  in- 
fected animals  to  notify  certain  authorities  immediately  upon 
discovery  that  the  disease  is  present;  such  officers  then  make 
a  careful  investigation  of  the  case  and  the  infected  animal  is 
ordered  disposed  of  at  once,  the  o^vner  being  wholly  or  in  part 
reimbursed  for  the  loss  thus  sustained. 

There  seems  to  be  no  authentic  record  of  cattle  ever  having 
been  attacked,  but  sheep  are  more  or  less  susceptible,  while 
mules  are  seldom  affected.  It  may  be  transmitted  to  man  by 
contagion  or  infection,  and  persons  so  infected  should  secure 
expert  medical  attention  at  the  earliect  possible  moment. 

The  disease  is  due  to  a  micro-organism  called  bacillus  mallei. 

Causes. — Either  by  contagion,  or  by  contact  with  infected 
animals  or  articles  used  in  connection  with  their  care,  litter  and 
blankets  being  especially  good  vehicles  for  transmission  of  the 
germs. 

Symptoms. — Fever,  sluggishness,  dulness,  and  a  dry,  rough 
coat.  Numerous  small  abscesses  appear  in  the  skin,  and  are 
known  as  farcy  "  buds  "  or  "  buttons."  Post-mortem  exam- 
ination reveals  the  presence  in  the  lungs  of  numerous  small 
punctures  caused  by  abscesses,  and  these  are  no  doubt  responsible 
for  the  fatal  termination  of  the  diseases. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  infected  animal  strictly  quarantined  in 
sanitary  quarters,  and  supply  clean  feed,  pure  water,  and  com- 
plete rest  until  the  proper  authorities  issue  further  directions. 
The  quarters,  and  all  articles  used  in  connection  with  the  care 
of  the  animal,  should  be  burned  immediately  after  the  death  of 
the  animal,  and  the  same  disposition  of  the  carcass  should  also 
be  made. 

The  following  remarks  on  page  119,  U.  B.,  1915,  under  the 
subject  of  disposition  of  carcasses  may  prove  of  interest  to  persons 
not  famiUar  with  effective  means  of  disposition  in  such  cases: 

Reg.  G-27.  The  carcasses  of  all  animals  which  die  on  the  National 
Forest  from  contagious  or  infectioios  diseases  must  be  burned,  and 


LIVE  STOCK  245 


the  carcasses  of  all  animals  which  die  in  the  close  vicinity  of  water 
must  be  removed  Immediately,  and  buried  or  burned. 

Comment  on  this  regulation  is  as  follows: 

"The  carcasses  of  animals  dying  from  blackleg,  anthrax,  glanders, 
and  other  bacterial  diseases  scatter  germs  on  the  range  when  they 
decompose,  and  a  healthy  animal  may  contract  the  disease.  There- 
fore, to  prevent  the  pollution  of  water  supply  and  the  spread  of  the 
disease  among  himian  beings,  as  weU  as  Uve  stock,  this  rule  will  be 
strictly  enforced. 

How  to  Burn  a  Dead  Animal. — The  destruction  by  fire  of  the  carcass 
of  an  animal  weighing  perhaps  a  thousand  pounds  is  not  an  easy 
matter.  One  of  the  best  methods  kno^vn  is  to  dig  a  hole  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  carcass,  about  2  feet  deep  and  large  enough  otherwise  to 
contain  it.  On  the  sides  of  this  hole  dig  two  or  thi-ee  small  ditches  or 
trenches  sloping  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  into  the  hole.  These 
will  secure  a  strong  draft,  which  will  aid  materially  in  the  success  of 
the  work.  Ha\'ing  filled  this  hole  with  dry  wood,  piled  so  as  to  give 
the  maximum  draft,  the  animal  can  readily  be  rolled  onto  the  pUe,  and 
with  an  ad-iitional  supply  of  wood  placed  around  the  carcass  the  com- 
bustion wiU  generally  be  almost  complete.  The  earth  taken  from  the 
hole  can  then  be  thrown  back  into  it,  covering  what  few  bones  are  left 
unbumed,  and  the  job  ^vill  be  completed  in  a  verj-  satisfactory-  manner. 

Owners  Must  Dispose  of  Dead  Animals. — Where  the  ownership  of  a 
dead  animal  can  be  ascertained  the  work  of  burning  or  burj-ing  the 
carcass  must  be  attended  to  by  the  owner  or  his  employees.  So  far  as 
practicable  forest  officers  wiU  notify  persons  of  the  presence  upon  the 
range  of  dead  animals  owned  by  them.  Where  this  ownership  can  not 
be  ascertained  the  duty  of  carrjing  out  the  regulation  falls  upon  the 
local  forest  officer." 


Since  man  is  not  immune  to  glanders,  he  should  exercise  the 
greatest  precautions  not  to  contract  it.  He  should  not  remain 
in  an  infected  animal's  quarters  longer  than  necessary,  and  should 
be  especially  careful  not  to  allow  cracks  or  open  sores  on  the 
hands  to  come  in  contact  with  any  part  of  the  carcass. 

Bets. — Horsemen  disagree  widely  as  to  whether  such  a  dis- 
ease as  bots,  as  the  term  is  generally  understood,  really  exists, 
some  contending  that  the  symptoms  ascribed  to  the  disease  are 
due  to  other  causes  and  do  not  indicate  that  the  animal  is  suf- 
fering from  "  bots." 

The  disease  as  recognized  by  those  who  insist  it  does  exist 
usually  proves  fatal  if  allowed  to  progress  unattended. 

Causes. — Said  to  be  caused  by  the  accumulation  in  an  ani- 
mal's stomach  of  the  eggs  of  the  "  nit  fly  "  or  "  bot  fly."  Here 
a  certain  process  of  development  produces  a  worm  or  grub 


246   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

similar  to  that  found  in  the  backs  of  cattle  and  known  as  a 
"  woK  "  or  ''  warble."  The  eggs  are  deposited  by  the  fly  on  the 
animal's  hair,  and  are  found  in  greatest  numbers  on  the  inner 
sides  of  the  fore  legs  and  below  the  knees,  where  they  appear 
as  minute  yellow  specks.  Their  attachment  to  the  hair  pro- 
duces a  tickhng  sensation  which  causes  an  animal  to  nibble  at 
them  and  thus  take  them  into  the  stomach  through  the  throat. 

As  development  progresses  here  they  finally  attach  them- 
selves to  the  stomach  walls,  w^here  they  remain  and  increase  in 
size,  sometimes  to  half  an  inch  in  length  and  almost  as  much 
in  diameter.  Post-mortem  examination  may  show  them  clus- 
tered so  closely  together  as  to  completely  hide  the  walls. 

Treatment. — The  primary  stages  are  so  likely  to  escape  ob- 
servation that  the  disease  is  usually  fully  developed  before  it 
becomes  noticeable  to  the  average  horseman.  The  best  treat- 
ment is  of  a  preventive  nature.  The  animal's  stomach  should 
be  kept  in  a  healthy  condition  by  frequent  doses,  administered 
in  the  feed,  of  some  article  that  w^ll  assist  nature  in  throwing 
off  the  accumulations  of  eggs.  Any  good  worm  m.edicine  wdll 
serve  the  purpose,  or  a  small  handful  of  powdered  leaf  tobacco 
in  the  feed  once  a  month  will  do  as  well.  Kerosene  oil  smeared 
on  the  animal's  legs  wdll  repel  the  flies  and  at  the  same  time 
prove  so  distasteful  that  the  animal  will  nibble  at  its  legs  less. 

Pink  Eye. — This  is  a  contagious  fever  and  is  so  designated 
from  the  red,  swollen  eyes  incident  to  it.  One  attack  usually 
renders  the  animal  immune  thereafter,  although  this  rule  is  not 
invariable. 

It  may  be  transmitted  through  the  medium  of  Utter,  blankets, 
or  other  articles  used  about  the  animal,  or  may  even  be  carried 
in  the  attendant's  clothes.  Horses  from  three  to  five  years  of 
age  are  attacked  most  severely. 

Causes. — Generally  results  from  contact  with  infected  animals 
or  articles  used  in  their  care. 

Symptoms. — Dulness,  violet  color  of  natural  openings,  partial 
muscular  paralysis,  excessive  lachrymal  secretions  that  in  run- 
ning down  over  the  sides  of  the  nose  may  cause  blisters,  and 
partial  or  total  blindness  or  deafness  or  both.  The  disease  runs 
from  two  to  three  weeks. 

Treatment. — Quarantine  the  animal  in  clean,  well-ventilated 
quarters,  and  supply  clean  feed,  water,  and  litter.  Tempt  the 
appetite  with  vegetables,  apples,  sugar,  or  anything   the  animal 


LIVE   STOCK  247 

exhibits  a  special  fondness  for.  Copious  injections  of  cold  water 
will  reduce  the  fever. 

Horse  Pox. — Horse  pox  is  infectious,  occurs  chiefly  in  young 
horses  and  generally  leaves  an  animal  immune  from  further 
attacks.  It  should  not  prove  fatal  if  proper  care  and  attention 
are  given. 

Causes. — Unsanitary  surroundings,  such  as  polluted  water, 
muddy  stalls,  poor  feed  and  improper  care. 

Sympto77is. — Small  eruptions  appear  generally  or  locally  in 
from  three  to  four  days  and  are  most  prominent  on  the  mucous 
membranes,  where  they  are  of  a  bright-red  color,  and  on  the 
pastern  joints  where  they  have  the  appearance  of  small  bird- 
shot  under  the  skin.  At  a  later  stage  a  small,  yellowish  spot 
appears  at  or  near  their  center  and  the  eruptions  become  softer. 
Scabs  appear  stiU  later  and  the  pocks  are  completely  healed  in 
from  seven  to  ten  days.  The  eyes  assume  a  reddish,  feverish 
appearance,  the  pulse  is  accelerated,  the  appetite  is  poor  and 
excessive  thirst  is  apparent. 

Treatment. — Feed  clean  hay,  bran  mash,  vegetables,  apples 
or  other  articles  the  animal  exhibits  a  liking  for.  Protect  from 
cold  drafts  with  blankets.  The  legs  may  be  protected  by  being 
clothed  in  an  old  pair  of  overalls  supported  from  the  blanket 
by  pins. 

Gangrene. — This  exists  in  two  forms  knowTi  as  "dry"  and 
"  moist  "  gangrene.     The  former  will  be  considered  first. 

Causes. — Usually  due  to  continuous  pressure  on  one  spot  of 
an  ill-fitting  harness  or  saddle,  but  may  be  caused  by  forcing 
an  animal  to  Ue  in  wet,  dirty  litter. 

Symptorns. — Dulled  sensory  nerves,  resulting  from  dead  tis- 
sues, dry  leathery  appearance  of  the  skin  and  a  general  condi- 
tion of  drowsiness. 

Treatment. — Supply  clean  litter,  adjust  the  saddle  or  harness 
until  it  fits  properly  and  apply  fatty  solutions  or  moist  poultices. 

Moist  gangrene  is  characterized  by  swollen,  inflamed,  and 
moist  skin,  and  the  secretions  produced  may  result  in  spreading 
of  the  affection  unless  properly  controlled.  After  sloughing 
stops  treat  the  same  as  for  dry  gangrene. 

Rabies. — The  only  available  treatment  for  this  disease  is  to 
kill  the  animal  so  affected.  So  far  as  known,  there  is  no 
remedy  that  will  check  or  cure  it. 

Causes. — Usually  transmitted  by  the  bite  of  an  infected  animal, 


248   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

but  may  be  contracted  through  contact  of  an  open  sore  or  wound 
with  the  slavers  of  such  an  animal. 

Symptoms. — If  resulting  from  a  bite,  the  wound  may  heal  over 
outside  and  appear  to  be  properly  healed  inside.  Internal  heal- 
ing, however,  is  not  complete  and  usually  produces  such  a  sen- 
sation that  in  its  attempts  to  secure  relief  the  animal  finally 
reopens  the  wound  with  its  teeth.  The  most  noticeable  symp- 
toms generally  manifest  themselves  within  about  a  month  after 
the  disease  has  been  contracted,  although  instances  have  been 
known  where  no  symptoms  were  developed  until  six  or  eight 
months  or  even  a  year  after^^ard.  Severe  spasms  occur  at  irreg- 
ular intervals  between  periods  of  calmness  and  httle  apparent 
suffering  and  are  so  intensely  painful  and  so  affect  the  nervous 
system  that  the  animal  loses  all  control  of  itseK.  It  rears, 
plunges,  strikes,  bites,  and  kicks  at  other  animals  or  its  stall 
or  manger,  1  suffers  from  the  most  rigid  contractions  of  the  mus- 
cles, is  extremely  irritable  and  vicious,  the  eyes  are  blood-shot 
and  the  vision  is  affected,  assaults  on  the  stall  may  be  made 
with  such  insane  vigor  that  broken  teeth  or  even  broken  jaws 
may  result,  and  in  its  crazy  rearing  and  plunging  the  animal 
usually  brings  about  its  own  death  by  self-inflicted  injuries. 

Treatment. — The  animal  should  be  shot  and  put  out  of  its 
misery  at  once.  The  carcass  should  be  burned  (see  page,  244, 
Glanders-Farcy)  or  buried  at  a  sufficient  depth  to  prevent  its 
disinterment  by  hogs  or  other  animals. 

The  attendant  should  exercise  the  greatest  care  in  venturing 
close  to  the  animal  during  its  periods  of  calmness.  There  is 
absolutely  no  means  of  knowing  how  long  such  a  period  may 
last.  It  may  continue  for  hours  or  it  may  pass  within  a  few 
minutes. 

Blind  Staggers. — Causes. — Generally  due  to  the  use  of  f:ed 
that  is  wormy,  musty,  or  sour.     Results  are  usually  fatal. 

Symptoms. — The  most  prominent  symptom,  from  which  the 
disease  derives  its  name,  is  partial  muscular  paralysis  which 
causes  the  animal  to  stagger  about  in  an  aimless  or  erratic 
fashion.  It  may  rear,  plunge,  kick,  or  bite,  or  show  other  indi- 
cations of  a  disordered  brain,  or  have  spasmodic  fits  or  spasms, 
and  usually  dies  within  a  few  hours. 

1  Many  veterinarians  claim  that  inanimate  objects  are  never  attacked. 
In  three  different  cases  observed  by  the  writer  the  manger  has  been 
severely  damaged  by  the  infected  animals. 


LIVE  STOCK  249 

Treatment. — In  most  cases  the  primary  stages  go  unobserved, 
and  after  the  later  stages  have  developed  little  can  be  done  to 
secure  relief.  An  experienced  veterinary  may  handle  the  case 
successfully  if  called  in  time.  Otherwise  there  is  little  hope  of 
recovery. 

Lampas. — This  disease  is  generally  knowTi  as  "  lampers." 

Causes. — In  young  horses,  cutting  teeth;  in  old  ones,  impaired 
digestive  powers,  or  inflammation  of  the  hard  palate. 

Symptoms. — The  roof  of  the  mouth  is  swollen  dowTiward  and 
in  an  aggravated  case  this  swelling  may  continue  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  projects  beyond  the  ends  of  the  upper  teeth. 
The  animal  will  quite  oft^n  be  noticed  rubbing  the  root  of  its 
tail  against  trees  and  buildings  or  posts. 

Treatment. — Lacerate  the  affected  parts  slightly  with  the 
point  of  a  sharp  knife  and  produce  moderate  bleeding.  Bathe 
the  lacerations  in  a  solution  of  alum  water,  using  a  dram  of 
alum  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warm  water.  Continue  the  treat- 
ment until  the  wounds  have  healed.  Give  only  soft  feeds,  and 
keep  fresh,  cold  water  before  the  animal  at  all  times.  If  lampas 
results  from  indigestion,  remove  the  cause. 

Injuries  and  Other  Ailments. — The  most  common  injuries  to 
which  horses  are  subject  in  the  field  are  lameness,  external  or 
internal  poisoning,  burns,  cuts,  bruises,  and  abscesses  in  their 
various  forms. 

Lameness. — Caiises. — Lameness  may  result  from  any  one  of 
a  number  of  causes.  An  animal  may  step  on  an  irregular  stone 
and  twist  or  sprain  one  or  more  joints;  hard  riding  or  heavy 
work  may  result  in  strained  or  displaced  tendons;  sharp  blows 
or  even  apparently  slight  bruises  may  cause  severe  lameness,  or 
continued  travel  through  very  muddy  country  may  have  the 
same  effect. 

Symptoms. — Lameness  in  a  fore  leg  will  be  indicated  by  quick 
upward  motions  of  the  animal's  head  when  the  weight  of  the 
body  comes  on  the  injured  member  and  the  weight  will  be  shifted 
to  the  opposite  member  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  causes  the 
animal  to  take  short,  quick  steps  with  the  lame  leg,  and  as  soon 
as  the  weight  of  the  body  has  been  transferred  to  the  other  leg 
the  head  and  neck  will  be  dropped.  If  lameness  occurs  in  both 
forelegs  the  steps  will  be  unnaturally  short  and  quick  on  either 
side,  the  head  will  be  held  high,  the  shoulders  will  be  kept  rigid 


250       HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

and  the  hind  feet  will  be  kept  well  under  the  body  in  order  to 
relieve  the  fore  legs  of  as  much  weight  as  possible. 

If  lame  in  a  hind  leg  the  animal  will  object  to  backing  and 
the  hip  corresponding  to  the  injured  leg  will  have  a  greater 
upward  and  downward  motion  when  the  animal  travels.  When 
both  hind  legs  are  affected  backing  will  be  still  more  painful  and 
all  the  weight  possible  wall  be  thrown  on  the  front  feet.  This 
causes  the  head  to  be  extended  and  held  low. 

Lameness  in  the  heel  or  ankle  is  indicated  when  the  foot  is 
held  forward  or  kept  suspended  above  the  ground.  The  animal 
moves  wdth  reluctance,  and  upon  being  allowed  to  remain  quiet 
will  immediately  assume  the  position  mentioned. 

Shoulder  lameness  is  indicated  when  the  point  of  the  hoof, 
or  the  toe,  is  rested  on  the  ground.  In  such  cases  the  foot  is 
seldom  extended  forward  but  the  knee  is  usually  bent. 

The  same  symptoms  indicate  lameness  in  the  elbow  joint. 

If  lameness  occurs  in  the  knee  or  hock  the  joint  is  held  as 
rigid  as  possible  and  bent  only  when  the  animal  is  forced  to  do  so. 

Lameness  in  the  hind  legs  is  much  more  serious  than  in  the 
fore  legs,  and  if  hip  lameness  is  apparent  the  horse  may  be  con- 
sidered worthless,  since  the  disease  can  not  be  cured.  If  there 
is  reason  to  doubt  the  existence  of  hip  lameness  rap  the  hip- 
bone sharply.  The  affection  will  be  indicated  by  a  sudden 
flinching  of  the  animal. 

Treatment. — The  best  general  treatment  for  any  lameness  is 
alternate  appHcations  of  hot  and  cold  water.  Bandages  should 
be  used.  Such  treatment  should  continue  for  from  one  to  six 
hours,  depending  upon  the  severity  of  the  injury.  Afterward 
the  injured  parts  should  be  bathed  twice  a  day  with  equal  parts 
of  turpentine  and  camphor,  but  this  should  not  be  rubbed  vig- 
orously or  confined  by  means  of  bandages,  or  bhstering  and 
removal  of  hair  will  follow.  This  treatment  should  be  continued 
for  from  one  to  six  or  seven  days. 

Internal  Poisoning. — Causes. — This  may  result  from  mistakes 
made  in  fiUing  prescriptions  for  medicine  to  be  given  an  animal, 
may  be  caused  by  the  animal  eating  loco  weeds  or  other  poison- 
ous plants,  or  may  result  from  snake  bites  or  from  numerous 
insect  stings. 

Symptoms. — The  general  symptoms  of  poisoning  are  thirst, 
laborious  breathing,  convulsions,  nervousness,  staggering,  wide- 
spread feet,  external  swellings  if  due  to  snake  bites  or  insect 


LIVE  STOCK  251 

stings,  accelerated  pulse,  and  bloating  and  dysentery  accom- 
panied by  large  quantities  of  mucus. 

Treatment. — Drench  with  half  a  pint  of  cinchona  in  a  quart 
of  lukewarm  water.  Repeat  the  dose  every  five  minutes  until 
relief  is  secured. 

Loco  Poisoning. — Causes. — This  poisoning  is  caused  by  ani- 
mals eating  a  weed  known  as  the  "  loco"  or  "rattle"  weed,  of 
which  there  are  two  principal  varieties.  These  are  the  varieties 
known  as  AragaUus  lamberti  and  Astragalus  moUissimus.  The 
former  poisons  sheep  and  cattle  and  the  latter  poisons  horses. 
Cattle  and  horses  do  not  as  a  rule  reUsh  the  weed,  but  since 
it  appears  early  in  the  spring  before  other  green  forage  can  be 
obtained  they  soon  form  the  habit  of  eating  it. 

Sympto7ns. — These  do  not  appear  until  a  large  amount  of  the 
weed  has  been  eaten,  after  which  the  animal's  eyes  assume  a 
glassy  appearance;  it  is  extremely  nervous  and  often  vicious, 
steps  quickly  and  with  unnaturally  high  movements  of  the  knee 
and  hock  joints,  and  upon  being  suddenly  startled  or  aroused 
may  have  convulsions.  In  the  final  stages  of  poisoning  the 
stomach  walls  are  so  affected  as  to  be  unable  to  perform  their 
functions  and  the  animal  soon  weakens  and  dies. 

Treatment. — Loco  poisoning  can  not  be  treated  successfully 
in  its  advanced  stages.  Diu-ing  the  primary  stages  affected 
animals  should  be  restricted  from  range  areas  in  which  the 
plant  occurs.  In  addition  to  this  horses  should  be  given  one- 
half  ounce  of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  once  a  day.  Cattle 
should  be  given  from  one  to  three  grains  of  strychnin  a  day. 
Sheep  should  be  given  one-third  that  amount  of  strychnin. 

Poison  Wounds. — Causes. — These  may  be  due  to  the  bite  of 
a  snake,  tarantula,  or  centiped,  or  to  numerous  tick  bites  or 
insect  stings.     In  all  cases  their  treatment  is  the  same. 

Symptoms. — Partial  muscular  paralysis  causes  staggering,  fall- 
ing or  other  similar  action;  stiffness  appears  in  the  Kmbs,  which 
are  held  wide  apart;  the  head  is  hung  low,  thick,  difficult  breath- 
ing is  prominent,  and  convulsions  may  occur.  In  most  cases  a 
swelling  forms  about  the  wound. 

Treatment. — Locate  the  wound  as  soon  as  possible.  If  caused 
by  a  snake  bite  and  bleeding  is  not  profuse,  make  it  so  by  an 
incision  in  the  wound  and  allow  the  blood  to  flow  freely  for 
about  five  minutes.  If  the  bite  is  on  a  limb  apply  a  tourniquet 
after  profuse  bleeding  has  been  secured.     This  may  be  impro- 


252   HANDBOOK  FOE  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

vised  from  a  halter-  or  picket-rope,  bridle  rein,  or  a  string  from 
the  harness  or  saddle.  By  thrusting  a  stick  beneath  it  and 
twisting  the  tom-niquet  up  tight  poison  may  be  prevented  from 
entering  the  circulatory  system.  However,  the  tourniquet  will 
interfere  with  bleeding  and  should  not  be  apphed  until  after 
bleeding  has  stopped.  Wash  the  wound  thoroughly  with  water, 
into  which  a  few  drops  of  carboUc  acid  have  been  put,  and  then 
apply  turpentine,  ammonia,  or  kerosene  oil  and  salt.  Perman- 
ganate of  potassium  is  also  very  effective,  even  for  man.  Allow 
the  animal  two  or  three  days  for  rest. 

If  due  to  numerous  insect  stings,  the  symptoms  in  severe  cases 
are  similar  to  those  resulting  from  snake  bites.  Bathe  the  ani- 
mal in  a  strong  solution  of  soda  and  water,  rubbing  thoroughly 
and  vigorously  to  insure  contact  of  the  solution  with  the  wounds, 
and  then  allow  a  good  rest. 

In  removing  ticks  from  an  animal's  body  care  must  be  taken 
to  see  that  their  heads  are  not  left  in  the  skin  or  serious  com- 
pUcations  may  ensue.  VaseUne,  bacon  grease,  or  lard  smeared 
over  the  ticks  will  cause  them  to  loosen  their  hold  and  drop  off. 

Bi'ms. — Burns  of  different  degrees  of  severity  demand  dif- 
ferent treatment,  yet  in  all  cases  the  treatment  must  be  such  as 
to  keep  the  air  from  the  wound.  This  should  not  be  done  by 
means  of  bandages  unless  circumstances  absolutely  demand  it, 
and  then  the  bandages  should  be  light  enough  and  of  a  sufficiently 
coarse  weave  to  allow  the  animal  heat  to  escape  from  beneath 
them.  Ointments,  such  as  carbolated  vasehne,  or  others  of  the 
consistency  of  syrup,  will  be  found  most  satisfactory.  In  severe 
cases,  after  the  wounds  have  been  washed  carefully,  an  appUca- 
tion  of  alcohol,  eggs,  and  milk  will  be  found  effective.  The  whites 
of  two  eggs  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  into  a  pint  each  of  al- 
cohol and  sweet  milk.  This  mixture  should  be  applied  twice 
each  day.  Castor  oil  also  makes  an  excellent  dressing  for  burns 
and  can  be  secured  at  any  drug  store. 

Very  sUght  burns  need  no  treatment  except  careful  washing. 
Applications  of  castor  oil  will  do  them  no  harm. 

Cuts. — A  general  idea  of  the  severity  of  a  cut  may  be  deter- 
mined from  the  manner  in  which  blood  flows  from  it.  Arterial 
bleeding  is  indicated  by  strong  regular  spurts  of  bright-red  blood, 
and  such  a  cut  should  be  given  prompt  attention.  A  tourniquet 
should  be  used  when  possible.  In  arterial  bleeding  it  is  apphed 
between  the  woimd   and  the  heart  and  twisted  tight.     (See 


LIVE    STOCK  253 

Poison  Wounds,  Treatment,  page  251.)  This  retards  the  flow  of 
blood  and  permits  the  attendant  to  dress  the  wound  \sJth  less 
difficulty.  If  coagulation  or  clotting  does  not  occur  within  a 
reasonable  length  of  time,  ligation  should  be  resorted  to.  This 
is  done  by  securing  the  severed  artery  ends  and  tying  them  shut 
with  a  thread,  preferably  of  silk.  This  may  appear  to  the  inex- 
perienced as  a  dangerous  procedure,  but  nature  will  soon  provide 
means  wherebv  circulation  will  not  long  be  impeded. 

If  a  vein  has  been  cut  that  fact  wi\l  be  indicated  by  a  slow, 
steady  flow  of  dark-colored  blood,  and  coagulation  wiU  soon  stop, 
bleeding  in  an  ordinary  case.  If  a  tourniquet  is  necessary  it 
must  be  applied  at  a  point  which  brings  the  wound  between 
it  and  the  heart.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  veins  carry 
the  blood  back  to  the  heart. 

Blood  which  slowly  oozes  from  a  cut  in  numerous  small  drops 
or  a  few  large  ones  indicates  lacerated  capillaries,  and  the  wound 
needs  no  attention  other  than  dressing. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  dressing  any  cut  to  see  that  it  is  washed 
clean,  and  its  subsequent  treatment  should  be  such  as  to  pre- 
clude any  possibility  of  infection.  Frequent  apphcations  of  tur- 
pentine will  serve  to  destroy  germs,  and  a  mixture  of  turpentine 
and  camphor,  equal  parts,  will  remove  soreness.  When  turpen- 
tine is  used  alone  grease  should  be  smeared  on  the  hair  around 
the  cut.     Other\\'ise  removal  of  the  hair  will  result. 

Proud  Flesh. — Causes. — This  may  occur  as  the  result  of  im- 
proper attention  and  consequent  infection  of  a  cut  or  it  may 
be  due  to  systemic  disorders  or  constitutional  weakness. 

Symjptoms. — Proud  flesh  may  be  identified  by  its  pink,  frothy 
appearance.  If  present  under  the  skin  the  latter  will  be  swollen 
and  sensitive  and  will  not  readily  resume  its  former  outline  after 
being  pressed  into. 

Treatment. — Apply  burnt  alum  or  granulated  sugar  twice 
daily.  To  bum  the  alum  place  it  in  an  inverted  lard-pail  hd 
or  in  a  tin-cup  or  can,  and  heat  it.  When  cool  pulverize  the 
ash  and  sprinkle  this  over  the  affected  parts.  Bandages  should 
not  be  used  to  confine  it.  Sugar  is  Ukewise  sprinkled  on  the 
parts. 

Bruises. — Causes. — Blows,  kicks  from  other  animals,  falls,  and 
similar  accidents. 

Symptoms. — External  sweUings  may  appear  or  no  visible  symp- 
toms whatever  may  be  present.     For  this  reason  the  degree  of 


254   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

severity  of  a  bruise  can  be  determined  only  by  speculation,  unless 
the  accident  has  been  witnessed  by  the  attendant  or  other 
persons.  As  a  rule,  however,  lameness  and  stiffness  appear,  and 
unless  experienced  in  such  matters  the  horseman  may  conclude 
that  certain  tendons  or  ligaments  have  been  strained. 

Treatment. — Make  frequent  appUcations  of  hot  water  to  the 
affected  parts,  follow  with  applications  of  cooler  water,  and 
finally  use  cold  water.  Continue  the  treatment  until  the  sore- 
ness has  disappeared. 

Punctures. — Causes. — Stepping  on  nails,  pieces  of  glass,  stub- 
ble, or  other  sharp  objects  long  enough  to  penetrate  the  sole  of 
the  hoof  and  injure  the  inner  sole. 

Symptoms. — These  may  not  appear  until  weeks  after  the 
accident,  and  then  lameness  may  develop.  In  many  instances 
the  outer  portion,  or  the  point  of  entrance  to  the  puncture, 
heals  over  and  is  not  discernible  to  a  casual  observer,  and  the 
animal's  lameness  may  be  ascribed  to  any  one  of  a  dozen  dif- 
ferent causes,  none  of  which  is  responsible  for  the  trouble. 

Treatment. — Give  the  sole  of  the  hoof  a  thorough  examination 
for  openings  and,  if  necessary,  remove  the  shoe.  When  the  open- 
ing has  been  located  trim  it  out  funnel-shape  and  allow  the 
pus  to  escape.  Turpentine  may  be  injected  with  a  small  syringe 
and  infection  prevented.  Keep  the  wound  open  and  clean  until 
no  more  pus  forms.  The  entrance  of  dirt  may  be  prevented  by 
binding  a  tow  sack  about  the  hoof  and  under  the  sole. 

Abscesses. — Causes. — These  are  caused  in  most  cases  by 
blows  inflicted  at  such  a  point  on  the  body  and  in  such  a  way 
that  the  deadened  tissues  can  not  escape,  but  decay  and  form 
pus  under  the  skin. 

Symptoms. — A  swelling  appears  at  the  point  of  injury,  and 
when  pressed  is  found  to  be  filled  with  a  soft,  watery  fluid. 
Extreme  sensitiveness  is  apparent  and  the  skin  is  feverish. 

Treatment. — As  a  general  rule  abscesses  break  of  their  own 
accord  and  the  pus  escapes  through  the  opening.  If,  however, 
it  appears  that  the  swelling  has  reached  its  point  of  greatest  dis- 
tension and  no  opening  occurs,  it  should  be  lanced.  This  may 
be  done  by  thrusting  the  point  of  a  knife-blade  through  the  skin 
at  a  point  where  complete  drainage  of  the  abscess  may  be  ob- 
tained. Keep  the  wound  open  as  long  as  pus  flows  and  inject 
one  or  two  drops  of  turpentine  twice  a  day.  If  an  offensive 
odor  is  present  apply  hydrogen  peroxid  twice  daily  until  "  boil- 


LIVE  STOCK  255 

ing  "  no  longer  occurs.  Hydrogen  peroxid  disinfects  only  in 
surface  wounds  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  air.  On  deep  lacera- 
tions use  a  carbolic  or  coal-tar  disinfectant. 

Harness  and  Saddle  Galls. — Causes. — These  are  the  result  of 
the  use  of  improperly  fitting  harness  and  saddles  and  are  in  the 
nature  of  abscesses. 

Symptoms. — Similar  to  those  of  other  abscesses  except  perhaps 
the  hair  may  be  worn  off  and  the  skin  may  appear  red  and 
inflamed. 

Treatment. — Since  they  are  of  the  same  nature  as  other  ab- 
scesses they  should  be  treated  accordingly.  Wash  with  clean 
water,  into  which  a  few  drops  of  carbohc  acid  have  been  put; 
then  treat  with  apphcations  of  turpentine  and  camphor,  equal 
parts.  The  animal  may  be  worked  during  treatment  if  the 
wounds  are  kept  clean  and  the  harness  or  saddle  kept  in  a  similar 
condition  and  properly  fitted.  The  animal  should,  however,  be 
given  a  complete  rest  if  the  galls  fail  to  respond  to  this  treatment. 

Sitfasts. — Causes. — These  result  from  continuous  pressure  of 
a  harness  or  saddle  on  one  spot,  often  extend  deep  into  the 
flesh  or  muscles,  and  are  similar  in  nature  to  corns  on  the  human 
foot. 

Symptotns. — A  hard,  almost  horny,  growth  appears  on  the 
flesh,  is  bare  and  leathery  and  very  sensitive,  and  increases  in 
size  as  the  animal  is  used. 

Treatment. — Some  horsemen  claim  that  sitfasts  can  be  removed 
only  by  freezing  and,  in  accordance  with  that  theory,  turn  af- 
fected animals  on  the  range  during  the  winter  months.  Under 
certain  conditions  this  treatment  might  possibly  prove  effective, 
but  where  cures  are  obtained  in  such  cases  they  are  undoubt- 
edly due  more  to  the  rest  than  to  the  freezing.  The  growths 
may  be  removed  with  a  sharp  knife  or  razor  and  with  but  little 
discomfort  to  the  animal.  Antiseptic  precautions  should  be  ob- 
served and  the  animal  given  a  complete  rest  until  recovery. 

Fistula. — Causes. — This  trouble,  kno-^-n  generally  as  "  fistulo," 
occurs  at  a  horse's  withers  as  the  result  of  an  ill-fitting  harness  or 
saddle.  It  is  of  the  same  nature  as  any  abscess  and  should  be 
treated  accordingly.     (See  Abscesses,  Treatment,  page  254.) 

IMost  horsemen  Umit  the  term  "  fistula  "  to  its  meaning  as 
applied  to  this  particular  trouble.  As  a  matter  of  fact  any 
abscess  bearing  tubes  or  ''  pipes  "  leading  to  an  internal  cavity 
is  a  fistula,  regardless  of  its  location  on  an  animal's  body. 


256   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Poll  Evil. — This  is  another  abscess  which  appears  at  the  back 
of  the  head  between  or  behind  the  ears  as  the  result  of  a  bruise 
sustained  from  a  blow  against  low,  overhead  beams  or  other 
similar  articles.     Treat  the  same  as  any  abscess. 

Quitter. — This  abscess  appears  at  the  coronet  of  the  hoof. 
(See  Fig.  202.)  It,  too,  is  caused  by  a  bruise  and  should  be 
treated  as  any  abscess. 

Sweeney. — Causes. — This  is  an  atrophic  condition  of  the 
shoulder  muscles  and  is  caused  by  lack  of  exercise  of  those 
muscles,  such  as  when  an  animal,  suffering  from  lameness  or 
other  injuries,  stands  for  long  periods  on  one  foot,  leaving  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder  corresponding  to  the  opposite  leg  in  a 
continually  relaxed  condition. 

Symptoms. — Gradual  withering  away  of  the  shoulder  until  it 
presents  a  perceptibly  shrunken  appearance,  tightness  of  the 
skin  against  the  flesh  of  the  affected  shoulder,  extreme  pain 
when  the  animal  is  forced  to  use  the  affected  member. 

Treatment. — Unless  injury  of  the  leg  is  so  severe  as  to  pre- 
clude such  treatment,  force  the  animal  to  stand  on  it.  This 
may  be  done  by  tying  the  other  leg  up  to  the  body.  Seize 
the  skin  of  the  shoulder  and  pull  it  outward  from  the  flesh. 
A  sharp,  crackhng  sound  will  be  produced  and  indicates  the 
tearing  away  of  deadened  tissues.  The  operation  will  cause  the 
animal  considerable  pain,  but  will  eventually  prove  beneficial  if 
repeated  twice  daily.  Apply  powdered  May-apple  root  in  the 
form  of  an  ointment,  made  of  as  much  of  the  root  as  will  lie  on 
a  dime,  mixed  into  half  a  teacupful  of  lard.  Unless  the  lard 
is  used  bHstering  will  result.  Ten  cents  worth  of  the  root  will 
furnish  enough  for  twenty  or  thirty  applications.  One  appUca- 
tion  should  be  sufficient. 

Scratches. — Causes. — This  is  caused  by  forcing  an  animal  to 
stand  in  wet,  dirty  Utter  or  manure,  or  by  overfeeding  on  grain 
or  unwholesome  forage  or  anything  which  tends  to  derange  the 
system. 

Symptoms. — The  skin  on  the  fetlocks  appears  swollen  and 
inflamed,  cracks  may  appear  in  the  skin  and  extend  through 
to  the  flesh  and  a  general  tenderness  and  soreness  of  both  will 
be  apparent. 

Treatment. — Provide  clean  quarters  for  the  animal  to  stand  or 
lie  in,  clip  the  hair  from  the  fetlocks  and  apply  carbolated 
vaseline  or  castor-oil  to  the  skin  three  times  a  day. 


LIVE  STOCK  257 


2.  CATTLE 

The  cattle  industry  requires  a  large  amount  of  the  average 
field  man's  attention  on  most  National  Forests  and  it  is  there- 
fore imperative  that  he  famiUarize  himself,  to  a  certain  extent 
at  least,  with  conditions  which  directly  affect  the  stock  in  his 
district.  Badly  diseased  cattle  are  seldom  found  on  the  open 
range,  but  certain  ailments  to  which  cattle  in  all  sections  of  the 
country  are 'subject  may  be  met  with,  and  the  field  man  should 
be  able  to  take  immediate  steps  looking  to  the  cure  or  to  the 
prevention  of  further  infection. 

Only  the  most  common  diseases  wi]l  be  considered  here. 

Bloat. — Causes. — This  is  a  form  of  acute  indigestion  and  may 
result  from  any  one  of  a  number  of  causes.  Chief  among  these 
are  overfeeding,  feeding  too  much  wet  or  frosty  grass,  or  allow- 
ing access  to  large  quantities  of  cold  water  when  the  paunch  is 
full.     Impaired  digestive  powers  may  also  bring  on  the  trouble. 

Symptoms. — Great  uneasiness  is  apparent,  belching  occurs, 
excessive  secretions  of  saliva  cause  "  slobbering,"  the  animal 
staggers  and  the  eyeballs  protrude  unnaturally.  The  left  side 
is  greatly  distended  and,  when  tapped  or  thumped,  gives  back  a 
hollow,  drum-like  sound.  Difficult  breathing  occurs  as  the  result 
of  unnatural  pressure  of  the  digestive  organs  against  the  lungs. 

Treatment. — Drench  with  a  tablespoonful  of  aromatic  spirits 
of  ammonia  in  a  pint  of  water,  or  a  teaspoonful  of  turpentine 
in  a  pint  of  raw  Unseed-oil,  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of  common 
soda  in  a  pint  of  water.  If  these  remedies  fail  the  animal  should 
be  tapped.  This  is  done  by  thrusting  the  point  of  a  sharp 
knife-blade  through  the  skin  and  the  wall  of  the  paunch  at  a 
point  immediately  before  the  left  hip-bone  and  half-way  between 
it  and  the  last  rib.  As  the  gas  escapes  from  the  paunch  the 
latter  wiU  recede  from  the  skin,  and  unless  a  pipe-stem,  quill,  or 
similar  article  is  inserted  in  the  two  openings  they  will  no  longer 
coincide  and  the  escape  of  gas  will  be  prevented.  The  regular 
instrument  used  by  veterinaries  for  this  purpose  is  known  as  a 
"  trocar." 

A  knife  should  be  used  only  when  no  trocar  is  available.  The 
wound  wiU  heal  without  treatment. 

Bloat  occurs  quite  frequently  in  calves,  and  as  a  general  rule 
is  the  result  of  overfeeding  after  they  have  missed  a  meal  or  two. 
They  should  be  drenched  with  a  pint  of  raw  linseed-oil,  or  four 


258   HANDBOOK  POR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

tablespoonfu's  of  castor-oil,  or  half  a  pound  of  Epsom  salt 
dissolved  in  warm  water. 

Loss  of  Cud. — This  is  not  a  disease,  but  is  an  indication  of  a 
disordered  digestive  system.  Feed  bran  mash  and  vegetables  or 
other  easily  digested  foods  and  keep  the  digestive  organs  in 
proper  condition. 

Black  Leg. — Causes. — This  disease,  also  known  as  symptomatic 
anthrax,  is  caused  by  a  germ  called  Bacillus  anthracis  em-physema- 
tosa,  which  means  "  air  bloated."  Formerly,  it  was  generally  be- 
Ueved  to  infect  most  severely  such  cattle  as  ranged  on  low, 
marshy  areas,  where  stagnant  water  or  periodical  floods  occurred. 
In  recent  years,  however,  many  veterinarians  doubt  if  such 
lands  have  any  direct  influence  on  the  disease's  appearance. 
Thrifty,  fat  young  cattle,  from  six  to  twenty-four  months  old, 
are  most  susceptible,  although  older  cattle  may  be  attacked. 
Infection  is  not,  as  generally  supposed,  transmitted  through 
the  alimentary  canal,  but  the  germs  usually  enter  through  wounds 
made  by  thorns,  barbs,  cacti,  and  other  sharp-pointed  agents. 
The  germs  multiply  only  in  the  absence  of  oxygen,  and  large 
wounds  are  not,  therefore,  necessarily  sources  of  infection. 
Black  leg  should  not  be  confused  with  anthrax.  The  latter  is 
caused  by  the  germ  bacillus  antkracis,  and  attacks  cattle  of  all 
ages,  aU  domestic  animals,  and  even  man. 

Symptoms. — If  germs  have  entered  through  abrasions  of  the 
skin  of  the  mouth  the  latter  as  well  as  the  tongue  will  be  so 
swollen  as  to  cause  the  tongue  to  protrude.  In  addition  to  the 
protruding  tongue  a  high  fever  will  result  if  the  germs  have 
entered  at  other  points  on  the  body.  This  will  be  accompanied 
by  rapid  respiration  and  loss  of  appetite  and  the  animal  will 
move  wdth  difficulty.  These  symptoms  are  followed  by  the 
appearance  of  tumors  which,  when  pressed,  give  back  a  crackhng 
soimd.  Thick,  dark  blood  may  also  ooze  from  the  skin  covering 
the  tumors  and  the  latter  wiU  be  filled  with  gas. 

The  tumors  in  anthrax  proper  are  hard  and  show  no  indica- 
tions of  containing  gas. 

Death  usually  results  in  from  six  to  forty-eight  hours.  Car- 
casses should  be  burned,  as  should  also  the  litter  or  bedding 
upon  which  the  animal  has  lain  or  been  treated.  (For  burning 
of  carcasses,  see  Glanders-Farcy,  page  243.) 

Treatment. — Prevent  access  to  range  in  low  marshy  areas, 
where  pools  or  puddles  of  stagnant  water  may  appear  or  where 


LIVE  STOCK  259 

periodical  floods  may  occur.  The  disease  may  be  successfully 
combated,  or  at  least  checked,  by  any  one  who  understands 
the  use  of  virus, ^  but  ordinarily  the  average  person  can  do  Uttle 
except  to  administer  three  times  daily  a  dram  of  carboUc  acid 
well  diluted  in  water.  (For  measurement  of  medicine,  see  page 
349.) 

Mange. — Causes. — This  disease,  sometimes  known  as  "  cattle 
scabies,"  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  a  parasite  known  as  Psor- 
optes  communis,  var.  hoiis,  which  appears  in  greatest  numbers 
in  the  skin  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  and  about  the  root  of  the 
tail.  The  bite  produces  an  itching  sensation  which  causes  the 
animal  to  rub  or  scratch  until  the  hair  is  often  removed  and 
scabs  appear. 

Symptoms. — Continual  scratching  or  rubbing,  gray  or  brown- 
ish scabs,  thick,  hard,  dry,  wTinkled  skin. 

Treatment. — Dipping  is  the  most  effective  treatment.  (See 
Mange,  page  263.)  A  second  dipping  in  ten  or  twelve  days  is 
often  required  to  kill  the  mites  which  maj^  have  hatched  after 
the  first  dipping. 

Cow  Pox  (Variola). — Causes. — Cow  pox  results  from  improper 
action  of  the  organs  intended  to  keep  the  skin  in  a  healthy  and 
normal  condition. 

Symptoms. — Small  nodules,  about  the  size  of  buckshot,  appear 
in  the  skin  of  the  udder.  These  either  break  and  form  open 
sores  or  else  they  dry  up  and  form  scabs. 

Treatment. — Cow  pox  is  of  a  seK-Umited  nature  and  requires 
no  treatment  unless  it  appears  advisable  to  remove  soreness  and 
this  may  be  done  by  frequent  appUcations  of  carbolated  vasehne 
or  of  turpentine  and  camphor,  equal  parts. 

Lump  Jaw  (Actinomycosis). — Under  extremely  favorable  con- 
ditions, such  as  a  generally  weakened  physical  state  after  calving, 
this  may  be  transmitted  to  other  cattle  but  should  not  be  con- 
sidered as  invariably  contagious. 

Causes. — Due  to  the  action  and  development  of  a  vegetable 
parasite  or  fungus  (Actinomyces) ,  frequently  found  on  grain  husks 
and  other  vegetation.  All  domestic  animals,  and  even  man, 
may  be  affected. 

Symptoms. — The  most  prominent  symptom,  and  the  one  from 

^  Government  vaccine  may  be  obtained  free  of  charge  from  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  AVasliington,  D.  C. 


260   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

which  the  disease  derives  its  name,  is  the  appearance  of  a  large 
tumor  on  the  jaw,  although  other  tumors  may  appear  at  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body.  Final  development  of  the  tumor  on  the 
jaw  usually  results  in  death,  as  the  animal  soon  loses  the  use  of 
its  jaws  and  virtually  starves  to  death. 

Treatment. — Mix  four  tablespoonfuls  of  iodide  of  potash  in  a 
pint  of  water  and  administer  in  about  eight  equal  doses  at  the 
rate  of  one  per  day.  Discontinue  the  treatment  for  a  week; 
then  repeat  and  continue  alternate  weekly  treatment  as  long 
as  necessary.  Action  of  the  medicine  will  be  indicated  by  scales 
on  the  skin  and  discharges  from  the  eyes  and  nose. 

Tuberculosis. — Causes. — Generally  due  to  unsanitary  sur- 
roundings. 

Symptoms. — Cheese-like  nodules  appear  in  the  tissues  of  the 
body.  Other  prominent  symptoms  are  a  di'y,  rough  coat,  diffi- 
cult respiration  after  moderate  exercise,  coughing,  tight  appear- 
ance of  the  skin,  and  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh.  Breathing  is  in- 
tensely laborious  in  the  advanced  stage  and  may  be  accom- 
panied by  moaning,  severe  attachs  of  coughing  occur,  the  ex- 
tremities are  cold  and  physical  exhaustion  is  almost  complete. 

Treatment. — Tuberculosis  may  be  checked  by  injections  of 
tubercuUn,  but  this  should  not  be  attempted  by  an  inexperienced 
person. 

Foul  Feet. — Causes. — May  be  caused  by  forcing  an  animal  to 
stand  in  dirty,  muddy  quarters,  or  may  result  from  ranging  it 
on  soft  ground  where  necessary  wearing  away  of  the  hoof  is 
prevented. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  appears  in  various  stages,  from  small 
cracks  in  the  skin  to  separation  of  the  hoof  and  foot,  and  may 
even  result  in  loss  of  the  bone. 

Treatment. — In  sUght  attacks  wash  the  wounds  with  carbolic 
acid  and  water,  1  to  50  parts,  then  apply  turpentine  and  cam- 
phor, equal  parts,  twice  daily.  If  the  attack  is  severe  and  for- 
mations of  pus  are  apparent  beneath  the  wall  or  edge  of  the 
hoof,  bore  through  the  hoof  wall  with  a  gimlet  or  small  knife- 
blade  at  the  point  of  greatest  distention  and  allow  the  pus  to 
escape.  Use  a  small  s}Tinge  to  inject  the  turpentine  and  cam- 
phor, keep  out  aU  dirt  and  filth,  and  see  that  the  pus  is  allowed 
to  escape  as  fast  as  it  forms.  Keep  the  animal  on  dry  gi'ound 
until  recovery  is  complete 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease. — Causes. — Generally  due  to  use  of 


LIVE   STOCK  261 

contaminated  range  upon  which  cattle  have  been  grazed 
too  long. 

Symptoms. — Increase  in  temperature  may  occur  even  though 
the  animal  shivers,  the  hair  is  rough  and  dry,  and  extreme  sore- 
ness is  apparent  between  the  claws.  In  from  four  to  eight  da^'s 
a  practically  continuous  bUster  covers  the  Uning  of  the  mouth 
and  excessive  secretions  of  saliva  result.  At  this  stage  the  hoofs 
may  loosen. 

Treatment. — Drench  with  a  pound  of  Epsom  salt  dissolved  in 
boiling  water  and  administered  while  lukewarm.  Wash  the 
mouth  with  hydrogen  peroxid  diluted  to  half-strength;  see  that 
the  feet  are  perfectly  clean;  then  apply  turpentine  and  camphor, 
equal  parts,  to  them  till  all  soreness  disappears.  (For  Drench- 
ing, see  pa,ge  267.) 

Another  effective  treatment  is  to  wash  the  mouth  with  a  100 
to  1  solution  of  coal-tar  dip  and  stand  the  animal  in  a  trough 
containing  a  20  to  1  solution  of  the  same  nuxture.  Disinfect 
thoroughly. 

Milk  Fever. — Causes. — This  disease  is  not  really  a  fever  but 
partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  apoplexy  and  is  pecuhar  to  calv- 
ing, fat  cows  being  especially  susceptible.  Costiveness,  lack  of 
exercise,  or  rich  feed  may  also  cause  it. 

Symptoms. — Partial  paralysis  of  the  hind  quarters,  staggering, 
difficult  breathing,  high  pulse,  insensibility  to  pin  pricks  or  other 
ordinary  pain. 

Treatment. — Give  a  scant  tablespoonful  of  nux  vomica  every 
two  hours  by  placing  it  on  the  tongue.  Decrease  the  dose  as 
soon  as  spasmodic  muscular  action  appears.  A  physic  should 
not  be  given,  as  it  is  slow  in  action  and  may  even  prove  injurious. 
One  treatment  is  to  remove  the  urine  by  means  of  a  catheter 
and  empty  the  intestines  by  large  injections  of  warm  w^ater. 
Another  remedy,  having  a  record  of  over  96%  cures,  consists 
of  inflating  the  udder  with  sterilized  air  or  oxygen  or  even  water. 
This  is  given  by  means  of  a  specially  constructed  kit  which  may 
be  secured  through  any  veterinary.^ 

Choking. — Causes. — Attempts  to  swallow  rags,  blocks  of  wood, 
pieces  of  leather,  or  similar  articles.  It  may  also  occur  when 
drv  coarse  feed  is  used. 


^  See   Cir.  45,    Bureau   of  Animal   Industry,    U.    S.    Department   of 
Agriculture,  "Washington,  D.  C 


262   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Symptoms. — Attempts  are  made  to  disgorge  the  obstruction 
from  the  gullet,  the  flanks  are  drawn  in  at  short  intervals,  the 
back  is  "  humped,"  and  excessive  slobbering  occurs. 

Treatment. — Drench  with  a  pint  of  raw  linseed-oil  if  the  ob- 
struction can  not  be  broken  up  by  kneading  or  squeezing.  As 
long  as  the  drench  is  returned  through  the  nose  the  obstruction 
remains  stuck  fast.  As  a  last  resort  "  swabbing  "  may  be  nec- 
essary. Tie  the  animal  in  such  a  way  that  the  extended  head 
is  in  line  with  the  neck,  wrap  one  end  of  a  flexible  3^-inch  stick 
with  a  well  greased  cloth,  then  thrust  it  down  the  throat  and 
force  the  obstruction  into  the  stomach. 

Warbles. — Causes. — These  are  caused  by  two  kinds  of  bots, 
viz.:  Hypoderma  bovis  and  H.  lineata,  which  deposit  eggs  under 
an  animal's  skin.  The  larvae  increase  in  size  until  eUiptical  swell- 
ings, sometimes  as  large  as  walnuts,  appear  in  and  under  the 
skin.  These  are  known  in  many  localities  as  "  wolves."  In 
others  they  may  be  confused  with  "  screw- worms,"  which  are 
the  larva]  stage  of  a  fly,  Coiripsomyia  macclleria. 

Symptoms. — Swellings  appear  generally  along  either  side  of 
the  backbone  or  even  well  down  on  the  sides,  the  animal  moves 
about  as  little  as  possible,  and  a  generally  drowsy  appearance 
is  noticeable. 

Treatment. — Force  the  larvae  out  by  squeezing  the  swelhngs 
between  the  thumb  and  finger.  If  the  opening  in  the  swelling 
is  too  small  to  permit  such  ejectment,  it  should  be  enlarged  with 
a  sharp  knife.  In  event  the  larvae  can  not  be  forced  out  they 
should  be  killed  by  being  punctured  with  a  needle.  Afterward 
a  drop  of  turpentine  or  gasoline  may  be  injected  into  them. 
Ordinarily,  two  or  three  drops  of  turpentine  should  be  placed 
in  the  wounds  after  the  larvae  have  been  removed. 

Screw  "Worms. — These  appear 
in  open  wounds  and  are  espe- 
cially active  in  rainy  weather. 
Infected  animals  should  have  the 
affected  parts  bathed  in  turpentine, 
gasohne  or  chloroform. 
Fig.  203.— Reuflf's  method  Throwing    Cattle.— When   opera- 

of  casting.  tions   to   be    performed    on    cattle 

require  them  to  be  thrown,  gentle 
animals  may  be  tied  as  shown  in  Fig.  203,  which  represents  what 
is  known  as  "  Reuff's  Method  of  Casting."     A  rope  is  tied  about 


LIVE  STOCK  263 

the  animal's  neck  in  such  a  way  that  stranghng  will  not  occur  and 
two  half-hitches  are  then  taken  about  the  body,  one  imme- 
diately to  the  rear  of  the  fore  legs,  the  other  directly  in  front  of 
the  hind  legs.  The  loose  end  of  the  rope  is  then  pulled  stead- 
ily backward  until  the  animal  lies  down,  after  which  it  may  be 
tied  as  desired. 

Wild  or  vicious  animals  may  be  roped  from  horseback  and 
thrown.  Before  they  have  time  to  regain  their  feet  they  should 
be  secured  by  tying  all  four  feet  together. 

3.  SHEEP 

On  some  of  the  National  Forests,  particularly  in  the  South- 
west, the  field  man  is  requu-ed  to  spend  a  large  portion  of  his 
time  seeing  that  the  grazing  regulations  w^th  reference  to  sheep 
are  properly  enforced.  These  include  a  number  of  regulations 
having  to  do  with  the  physical  condition  of  such  animals,  and  the 
forest  officer  must  be  able  to  discern  disease  when  it  appears  and 
know  what  action  must  be  taken  to  combat  it.  Otherwise 
serious  losses  may  occur,  the  range  may  be  contaminated,  and 
unpleasant  compfications  may  arise. 

Mange  (Scabies). — Causes. — Sheep  mange  is  cause  by  a  para- 
site, the  most  common  of  which  is  Psoroptes  communis,  var.  ovis, 
and  which  by  its  action  in  the  skin  causes  premature  or  improper 
shedding  of  the  wool. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  wool  before  or  after  the  regular  shedding 
season,  patchy  or  ragged  wool,  and  scaley  skin. 

Treatment. — The  disease  may  be  prevented  by  dipping.  Two 
compounds  which  are  widely  used  in  the  Southwest  are:  (1)  The 
arsenic  dip;  (2)  The  sulphur  dip.  The  first  is  composed  of  a 
pound  each  of  soda  ash  and  arsenic  dissolved  in  forty  gallons 
of  water.  The  sheep  are  held  in  this  till  it  reaches  the  skin  and 
are  then  released.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  return  to  the 
range  until  dripping  stops  or  the  range  may  be  poisoned. 

The  sulphur  dip  consists  of  eight  pounds  of  sulphur,  five 
pounds  of  unslaked  lime,  one  pound  of  tobacco  leaves  and  fifty 
gallons  of  water.  Sheep  should  be  dipped  when  the  mixture  has 
been  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  100°  F.  and  should  be 
held  in  it  for  a  period  of  two  minutes. 

The  chief  ingredient  in  a  third  dip  is  coal-tar.  This  dip,  of 
which  there  are  any  number  of  rehable  makes  on  the  market 
and  which,  if  desired,  can  be  made  by  the  individual,  although 


2o4   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

it  is  generally  more  economical  to  purchase  already  compounded, 
is  rapidly  displacing  the  other  dips  formerly  used  for  the  cor- 
rection of  verminous  conditions  in  sheep  and  other  animals. 
This  is  probably  due  to  several  reasons,  not  the  least  of  which 
are  that  it  is  economical,  non-poisonous,  and  does  not  affect 
the  quaUty  of  the  wool  or  hide  in  other  than  a  highly  beneficial 
way.  Such  dips  are  used  generally  throughout  the  middle  West 
and  Northwest,  as  well  as  all  over  Canada  and  South  America, 
and  now  exceed  all  others  in  quantity  used.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  authorizes  them  for  use  and  sets 
the  standard  of  dilution. 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease. — This  disease  is  of  the  same  nature 
as  that  which  occurs  in  cattle  and  all  cloven-hoofed,  herbivorous 
animals  and  should  receive  the  same  treatment  in  all  cases. 
(See  page  260.) 

Foot  Rot. — Causes. — This  may  result  either  from  the  use  of 
contaminated  range  or  from  ranging  sheep  on  ground  that  is 
too  soft  to  keep  the  natural  growth  of  the  hoof  cut  away. 

Sym-ptoms. — Sore,  lacerated,  ragged  and  torn  hoofs.  Soreness 
and  festering  are  especially  prominent  between  the  claws. 

Treatment. — Cut  away  all  affected  parts  of  the  hoof;  then 
dress  the  hoof  with  a  mixture  of  two  tablespoonfuls  of  corrosive 
subUmate  in  a  pint  of  turpentine.  Animals  so  treated  should  be 
kept  from  the  range  at  least  a  month  after  treatment.  The 
disease  is  contagious. 

Lung  Worms. — These  are  small,  thread-Kke  worms  (Strongylus 
filaria),  from  3^-inch  to  1  or  2  inches  long,  and  are  found  in  the 
lungs  of  young  sheep  that  have  been  ranged  too  long  on  the 
same  areas. 

Symptoms. — Affected  animals  lose  flesh  rapidly  and  finally 
become  too  weak  to  walk. 

Treatment. — Drench  with  a  tea  made  of  three  parts  water  to  one 
part  flaxseed,  to  which  a  tablespoonful  of  gasohne  has  been  added. 
Keep  the  animals  from  infected  range  and  change  range  fre- 
quently. To  drench  a  sheep  set  the  animal  on  its  haunches  and 
hold  it  in  this  position  by  pressure  of  the  knees  against  either 
side.  So  long  as  its  feet  are  not  allowed  to  touch  the  ground 
it  will  struggle  but  Uttle,  if  any. 

Stomach  Worms. — These  infest  the  fourth  stomach  and  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  intestines.  There  are  two  kinds,  viz.: 
tape- worms  {Tcenia  plicata)  and  hair-worms  (Tricocephalus) . 


LIVE  STOCK  265 

Symptoyns. — The  symptoms  are  the  same  as  those  caused  by 
lung  worms,  but  are  accompanied  by  diarrhea.  The  last-named 
symptom  distinguishes  the  presence  of  stomach  worms  from  that 
of  lung  worms. 

Treatment. — The  same  as  for  lung  worms. 

Holding  Sheep. — A  pecuhar  characteristic  of  sheep  is  their 
habit  of  remaining  quiet  as  long  as  their  feet  are  not  allowed 
to  touch  the  ground.  The  easiest  method  of  holding  them  while 
medicine  is  to  be  administered,  therefore,  is  to  set  them  squarely 
on  their  rump  and  then  hold  them  in  this  position  by  pressing 
the  knees  against  either  side. 

4.  HOGS 

Except  on  the  National  Forests  of  the  South  and  Southeast 
the  average  field  man  has  httle  to  do  with  the  subject  of  range 
hogs,  but  if  he  is  to  be  stationed  in  either  of  these  locahties  he 
should  know  something  of  the  diseases  to  which  hogs  are  subject. 

Cholera. — Causes. — Cholera  may  be  the  result  of  unsanitary 
surroundings  or  it  may  appear  in  the  nature  of  an  epidemic  or 
contagion.  It  may  also  be  carried  by  bird  or  animal  scavengers. 
The  germ  is  Bacillus  choleroe  suis. 

Symptoms. — Intermittent  fever  and  shivering,  loss  of  appetite, 
accelerated  respiration,  general  depression,  and  watery  eyes  filled 
with  pus.  Blue  or  bluish-red  spots  appear  on  the  skin  and 
great  weakness  is  apparent.  The  disease  is  fatal  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  susceptibihty  of  the  animal  infected  and  to  the 
virulence  of  the  attack. 

Treatment. — So  far  as  known  there  has  not  yet  been  a  rehable 
cure  discovered,  although  inoculation  has  proven  of  distinct  value. 
Many  so-called  cures  may  prove  effective  under  extremely  favor- 
able conditions,  but  none  of  them  is  infalhble.  The  best  treat- 
ment is  of  a  preventive  nature,  such  as  providing  sanitary  sur- 
roundings, frequent  disinfection  of  quarters,  strict  isolation  of 
infected  animals,  and  careful  disposal  of  carcasses  by  burning. 
(See  Glanders-Farcy,  page  243.) 

Mange. — Causes. — Hog  mange  is  caused  by  a  parasite  of  the 
Sarcoptes  group.  The  parasite  is  of  sufficient  size  to  be  discern- 
ible with  the  naked  eye  and  has  the  appearance  of  a  minute 
white  speck.     The  disease  flourishes  in  unsanitary  surroundings. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  scratches  itself  frequently  and  rubs 


266   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

against  the  sides  of  the  pen  or  against  trees  and  posts;  scabs  and 
bare  white  spots  appear  on  the  skin,  and  a  generally  unhealthy 
appearance  of  the  skin  is  noticeable. 

Treatment. — Use  a  stiff  brush  and  scrub  infected  animals 
thoroughly  with  a  wash  made  of  carbolic  acid  diluted  with 
water,  1  to  50  parts.  A  weak  solution  of  water  and  tobacco 
leaves  is  also  good,  but  if  mad  too  strong  may  poison  an  animal. 
A  good  coal-tar  dip  or  disinfectant,  such  as  is  used  for  sheep 
scab,  is  just  as  effective  as  either  of  these  remedies  and  is  much 
safer. 

Thumps. — Causes. — Overfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  occurs  chiefly  among  suckling  pigs 
and  is  indicated  by  violent  heart  action,  the  heart  striking  the 
walls  of  the  chest  with  sufficient  force  to  cause  the  body  to 
sway  backward  and  forward.  The  action  is  plainly  audible, 
hence  the  term  "  thumps." 

Treatment. — Regulate  the  feed  by  removing  the  pigs  from  the 
sow  for  three-hour  periods  twice  a  day.     Allow  plenty  of  exercise. 

ADMINISTERING    MEDICINES 

Drenches. — These  are  liquid  medicines  and  are  administered 
by  being  poured  into  an  animal's  mouth  from  a  long-necked 
bottle  or  similar  receptacle.  They  should  never  be  given  through 
the  nose;  such  procedure  not  only  causes  strangulation  in  many 
instances,  but  also  results  in  more  or  less  loss  of  the  drench,  while 
that  portion  that  is  utiUzed  decreases  in  volume  and  strength  as 
it  passes  over  the  extra  membranes.  Moreover,  it  may  injure 
these  membranes  and  permanently  impair  their  usefulness. 

Pills  or  Balls. — These  are  administered  when  powdered  medi- 
cines are  to  be  used.  They  should  not  exceed  1  inch  in  diameter 
nor  2  inches  in  length.  They  are  placed  far  back  on  the  tongue, 
after  this  has  been  drawTi  out  as  far  as  practicable,  and  are  taken 
into  the  throat  when  the  tongue  is  released.  They  should  not 
be  administered  to  cattle,  as  the  digestive  organs  of  these  animals 
are  so  constructed  that  pills  may  pass  into  the  paunch  and  re- 
main there  for  some  time,  during  Vv^hich  they  are  without  effect ; 
there  is  also  a  possibiUty  of  their  being  regurgitated  with  the 
cud  and  chewed  over  by  the  animal. 

They  should  not  be  given  dry,  but  should  be  soft  and  moist; 
otherwise  they  may  stick  in  the  throat  until  sufficient  moisture 


LIVE   STOCK  267 

is  absorbed  from  this  passage  to  allow  their  progress  into  the 
stomach. 

Drenching  Horses. — Place  an  open  loop  of  rope  about  the 
upper  jaw  to  the  rear  of  the  tusks;  then  raise  the  head  above 
a  level  with  the  neck  by  pulhng  do\^^lward  on  the  rope  after 
the  other  end  has  been  passed  over  a  tree  hmb  or  a  beam ;  this 
permits  introduction  of  the  bottle-neck  into  the  mouth  in  such 
a  way  that  a  minimum  of  medicine  is  spilled. 

The  bottle  should  be  tipped  upward  until  the  contents  run 
into  the  animal's  mouth  in  a  moderately  full  stream,  but  no 
attempt  should  be  made  to  administer  the  entire  drench  at  one 
operation;  after  a  portion  has  been  given,  the  animal  should  be 
allowed  time  to  swaUow  before  more  is  released.  Horses  fre- 
quently refuse  to  swallow,  but  this  action  may  be  overcome  by 
tickhng  the  roof  of  the  mouth  with  the  bottle.  The  practice 
of  pinching,  kneading,  or  squeezing  the  throat  in  order  to  induce 
swallowing  is  to  be  avoided,  although  it  may  be  rubbed  gently 
and  no  ill  effects  wiU  follow. 

The  bottle-neck  is  thrust  into  the  mouth  between  the  bars 
of  the  jaws,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  place  it  so  far  back 
that  the  animal  may  crush  it  between  the  molars. 

If  the  animal  is  incUned  to  be  vicious  and  objects  to  being 
drenched,  it  may  be  tied  as  sho'^Ti  in  Fig.  208. 

Drenching  Cattle.— This  can  be  done  if  the  services  of  two  men 
are  available;  one  holds  the  animal  by  the  ears,  horns,  or  nose, 
or  ties  it,  while  the  other  administers  the  drench.  If  one  man 
must  work  alone  he  should  tie  the  animal's  head  up  higher  than 
the  throat.  Xo  trouble  need  be  anticipated  in  a  refusal  to 
swallow;  the  throat  and  mouth  are  so  constructed  that  the 
drench  can  not  be  retained  in  them  as  it  may  by  a  horse. 

Drenching  with  a  Syringe. — The  tube  of  the  instrument  is 
placed  well  back  in  the  mouth  and  the  charge  is  released  gi'ad- 
ually,  allowing  the  animal  plenty  of  time  to  swallow.  The  charge 
should  not  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  wiU  absorb  a  portion  of 
the  material  of  which  the  s\Tinge  is  made. 

SUBJUGATING    HORSES 

Throwing. — It  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  field  man, 
purchasing  a  horse  on  short  notice  and  without  careful  inspect- 
ing, secures  an  animal  that  has  not  been  properly  trained,  or 


268   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

one  that  has  been  allowed  to  develop  habits  not  desirable  in 
a  saddle  animal.  Many  of  these  habits  may  be  broken  up  by 
persistent  treatment,  although  it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to 
find  some  animals  that  are  too  stupid  to  learn.^ 

The  plan  of  throwing  an  animal  three  or  four  times  daily  for 
a  period  of  from  three  to  six  days,  tying  it  dowTi  securely,  and 
allowing  it  to  remain  in  that  condition  for  from  fifteen  minutes 
to  an  hour,  usually  results  in  the  complete  subjugation  of  a 
stubborn  or  viciously  inchned  animal.  While  it  is  thus  rendered 
unable  to  resent  any  operations  that  may  be  performed  on  or 
about  it,  its  feet,  ears,  head,  or  other  parts  of  its  body  may  be 
handled  until  it  learns  that  it  must  submit  peaceably  to  such 
treatment 

A  very  effective  means  of  throwing  is  to  use  a  casting  rig 
similar  to  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  208,  except  that  instead  of 
applying  it  to  one  hind  foot  only  both  hind  feet  are  secured. 
Moreover,  instead  of  merely  raising  one  foot  from  the  ground 
both  are  drawn  up  close  to  the  body  and  thus  rendered  useless 
as  means  of  offense  or  defense.  As  the  pastern  joints  are  forced 
upward  they  bend  more  sharply  and  there  is  little  danger  of  the 
rig  slipping  as  long  as  it  is  kept  tight;  it  is  advisable,  however, 
to  take  an  extra  turn  of  the  rope  about  them  when  they  are  to 
be  tied  firmly  against  the  animal's  body.  One  man  working 
alone  secures  one  foot  at  a  time,  tying  it  up  securely  by  fasten- 
ing the  loose  end  of  the  rope  into  the  rope  collar  about  the  ani- 
mal's neck.  When  one  foot  has  been  secured  in  this  manner 
the  other  is  then  secured  in  a  similar  manner.  If  two  men  are 
to  work  together,  both  hind  feet  may  be  drawn  forward  at  the 
same  time  and  then  fastened  after  the  animal  is  down. 

If  the  animal  is  a  kicker  and  refuses  to  have  the  loops  placed 
about  the  pasterns  by  hand,  they  should  be  laid  on  the  ground 
and  the  animal  backed  into  them;  or  a  stick  may  be  used  in 
placing  them  as  desired. 

When  the  hind  feet  have  been  brought  up  and  made  fast  the 
fore  feet  are  then  tied  back  to  them,  care  being  taken  in  this 
operation  to  use  a  knot  that  may  be  released  by  a  puU  at  the 
loose  end  of  the  rope.    It  is  also  necessary  to  have  the  rig  secured 


1  Occasionally  animals  purchased  by  the  United  States  army  prove  too 
stupid  to  recognize  certain  bugle  calls  or  other  commands ;  such  animals 
are  immediately  condemned  and  disposed  of  by  sale  or  otherwise. 


LIVE   STOCK  269 

in  such  a  way  that  the  animal  can  not  effect  its  release  before 
the  operator  is  ready  for  it  to  do  so.  If  an  unusually  severe 
lesson  is  deemed  necessary  the  neck  may  be  forced  back  along 
the  side  and  the  head  securely  tied  to  the  feet. 

Mules  being  thrown  in  this  way  usually  fall  to  their  knees 
first  and  retain  their  footing  with  the  hind  feet.  This  may  be 
overcome  by  pushing  them  sidewise  at  the  rear. 

Whirling. — This  is  a  very  effective  method  of  outwitting  an 
animal  that  refuses  to  stand  still  long  enough  to  be  saddled  or 
harnessed.  The  horseman  grasps  the  halter  rope  in  his  left 
hand  and  the  animal's  tail  in  his  right,  then  forces  the  animal 
to  travel  swiftly  in  a  small  circle  about  him  until  it  becomes 
dizzy.  It  may  then  be  saddled  or  harnessed  before  it  regains  its 
complete  equiUbrium. 

Head-and-Tailing. — This  is  similar  to  whirling,  except  that  the 
head  is  drawn  back  alongside  the  body  and  tied  to  the  tail  with 
the  halter  rope.  The  animal  is  then  forced  to  travel  in  a  circle, 
and  as  a  result  of  dizziness  soon  casts  itseK.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  fasten  the  halter  rope  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be 
released  from  the  tail  without  difficulty. 

Prominent  Bad  Habits. — Biting. — Little  can  be  done  to  break 
a  confirmed  biter  of  the  habit,  but  it  may  be  temporarily  checked 
by  the  use  of  a  stiff  bit  fitted  with  a  very  short  curb-strap.  When 
the  animal  attempts  to  bite,  the  reins  are  drawn  in  quickly  and 
the  animal's  mouth  suffers  so  severely  that  temporary  relief  may 
be  secured.  A  specially  constructed  bit,  bearing  upright  prongs 
on  the  bar,  is  manufactured  for  this  purpose;  the  prongs  pre- 
vent the  animal  from  closing  its  teeth  together. 

Kicking. — This  is  an  especially  dangerous  habit  and  requires 
severe  treatment.  A  very  effective  method  is  to  pass  a  rope 
from  a  severe  curb-bit  to  a  rear  pastern,  leaving  it  short  enough 
to  allow  the  animal  to  inflict  its  own  punishment  each  time  it 
kicks.  Proximity  to  the  animal's  heels  may  be  avoided  by  using 
a  long  rope,  laying  a  loop  on  the  ground,  backing  the  animal 
into  it,  and  then  drawing  the  rope  up  to  the  required  length. 

Stall  Kicking. — This  habit  may  be  broken  by  the  use  of  a 
pole  hung  behind  the  animal  at  a  point  about  23  2  feet  above 
the  ground  and  close  enough  to  permit  it  to  swdng  against  the 
animal  each  time  it  is  kicked  away.  Its  action  soon  discourages 
the  kicker. 

Striking. — This  is  a  difficult  habit  to  break,  and  in  aggravated 


270   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

cases  such  animals  should  be  kept  hobbled.  Another  plan  is 
to  rap  the  cannon-bones  sharply  with  a  stiff  stick  or  whip  each 
time  the  animal  strikes. 

Stall  Pawing. — A  2-foot  length  of  hght  chain  buckled  to  the 
pastern  of  the  leg  most  used  generally  breaks  this  habit;  if  it 
fails  the  chain  may  be  buckled  to  the  cannon-bone. 

Cribbing. — This  refers  to  an  animal's  action  in  setting  the 
teeth  into  and  sucking  at  a  post,  manger,  tree,  or  similar  object, 
and  is  frequently  designated  as  "  stump  sucking."  There  is  no 
means  of  permanently  breaking  the  habit,  but  temporary  relief 
may  be  obtainea  by  sprinkUng  pepper  or  other  distasteful  ma- 
terial over  the  object  at  which  the  animal  sucks. 

Setting  Back. — Tliis  refers  to  an  animal's  action  in  pulling 
back  on  the  rope  with  which  it  is  tied,  and  is  a  disagreeable 
habit  that  should  not  be  tolerated.  It  may  be  broken,  after 
repeated  lessons,  by  tying  the  animal  with  a  rope  it  can  not 
break.  Such  a  rope  should  be  noosed  about  the  neck  and  the 
animal  should  be  allowed  to  choke  itseK  down  at  each  attempt 
to  escape,  being  released  just  before  insensibility  ensues. 

Another  method  is  to  loop  a  rope  under  its  tail,  pass  the 
rope  up  through  the  chin  ring  of  the  halter  or  the  bozal  of  the 
hackamore,  tie  it  firmly  to  a  substantial  post,  and  then  leave 
the  animal  where  it  may  "  set  back."  To  prevent  the  rope 
from  shpping  down  from  around  the  root  of  the  tail,  it  may  be 
doubled,  brought  upward  and  along  the  back,  twisted  several 
times,  and  one  end  then  run  through  the  hackamore  from  either 
side  of  the  neck. 

A  variation  of  this  method  is  to  use,  in  connection  with  the 
strong  tail  rope,  a  weaker  halter  rope  that  may  be  broken  with 
moderate  effort.  Both  ropes  are  then  tied  to  the  post,  the 
halter  rope  being  sHghtly  shorter  than  the  other.  At  the  moment 
the  halter  rope  breaks,  or  is  cut,  the  animal's  whole  weight  is 
thrown  against  the  loop  under  the  tail.  Four  or  five  lessons 
should  prove  sufficient. 

Balking. — This  may  be  the  result  of  continued  overloading, 
improper  training,  ill-fitting  harness,  shoulder  sores,  or  pure 
stubbornness,  although  the  last  is  seldom  responsible.  The  habit 
can  not  be  permanently  broken,  and  an  animal  addicted  to  it 
should  be  disposed  of  at  the  first  opportunity.  It  is  pecuUar 
to  draft  animals,  and  may,  but  seldom  does,  appear  in  saddle 
animals. 


LIVE  STOCK  271 

The  common  practice  of  pouring  sand,  fine  gravel,  or  water 
into  the  ears  is  to  be  condemned.  A  better  way  to  gain  tem- 
porary relief  is  to  loop  a  rope  about  one  fore  foot  and  pull  the 
foot  forward.  As  the  animal  attempts  to  replace  it  on  the  gi'ound 
it  will  unconsciously  step  forward,  or  it  may  even  lunge  forw-ard 
very  suddenly.  In  the  latter  event  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
be  trampled  upon.  A  second  man  is  needed  to  hold  the  reins 
when  this  method  is  being  tried. 

Another  method  is  to  tie  the  ear  tips  together.  Still  another 
is  to  back  the  animal  several  steps,  if  this  can  be  done,  and  then 
urge  it  forward  suddenly. 

The  sole  object  to  be  attained  in  the  case  of  a  balky  animal 
is  to  divert  its  attention  from  its  resolve  not  to  move  forward, 
but  whipping  or  other  ill-treatment  seldom  proves  effective. 
Slight  adjustment  of  the  collar  or  other  parts  of  the  harness  is 
always  advisable. 

Rearing  in  Harness. — This  habit  may  be  broken  by  using  the 
rig  shown  in  Fig.  204.  When  the  animal  rears  the  rope  is  drawn 
in,  forcing  its  feet  upward  toward  the  body,  and  thus  causing 


Fig.  204.— Rearing  Rig. 

it  to  lower  the  body  in  an  attempt  to  replace  the  feet  on  the 
ground.  In  aggravated  cases  both  fore  legs  may  be  treated  in 
a  similar  manner,  the  services  of  a  second  man,  of  course,  being 
necessary  in  handling  either  the  rope  or  the  reins. 

Bolting. — Another  term  for  this  is  the  common  one  of  "  run- 


272   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

ning  away."  If  a  harness  animal  acquires  the  habit  it  should 
be  forced  to  continue  running  until  exhausted.  To  break  the 
habit  in  a  saddle  animal  a  30-  or  40-foot  rope  is  noosed  about 
its  neck  at  the  time  the  rider  dismounts  and  the  other  end  is 
tied  securely  to  some  stationary  object.  No  attempt  should  be 
made  to  stop  the  animal  as  it  bolts,  except  to  call  "  whoa  "  just 
before  it  reaches  the  end  of  the  rope.  Immediately  after  it 
hears  this  command  it  will  be  precipitated  headlong.  This  usually 
breaks  the  habit  in  about  three  lessons. 

PURCHASING   A    SADDLE    HORSE 

In  accordance  with  general  administrative  procedure,  the  new 
field  man  reporting  for  duty  is  immediately  assigned  to  field 
work.  Such  a  detail  involves  the  purchase  of  a  horse,  which  a 
regularly  appointed  field  man  must  furnish  himseK,  and  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  practically  all  of  his  field  trips  must  be  made 
by  horse,  the  purchaser  of  a  saddle  horse  should,  when  possible, 
exercise  the  greatest  dehberation  in  inspection  of  the  animal  he 
proposes  to  buy.  It  is  true  of  course,  that  a  saddle  animal 
which  may  suit  one  man  may  not  suit  another,  but  the  sug- 
gestions which  foUow  will  assist  the  inexperienced  buyer  in 
selecting  a  fairly  satisfactory  animal  for  use  until  such  time  as 
his  own  experience  may  tell  him  that  an  animal  of  other  quaUties 
will  suit  his  individual  likes  better. 

The  prospective  purchaser  should  always  make  a  personal 
inspection  of  the  animal  he  is  considering,  this  rule  holding  good 
in  every  case  unless  he  can  secure  advice  from  some  person  whom 
he  knows  to  be  absolutely  reliable.  Professional  horse  dealers, 
and  other  persons  having  horses  for  sale,  usually  will  not  or 
else  can  not  give  the  buyer  complete  details  concerning  the 
animal  negotiated  for.  As  a  result  of  this  the  buyer  may 
eventually  discover  characteristics  in  an  animal  that  were  not 
apparent,  or  were  not  made  known  to  him,  before  or  at  the 
time  the  purchase  was  made. 

Age. — Under  ordinary  circumstances  a  horse  should  be  in  his 
prime  at  from  seven  to  ten  years  of  age.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  most  work  or  saddle  animals  are  not  given  proper 
attention,  and  as  a  result  may  be  of  Uttle  value  after  they  reach 
the  age  of  seven  or  eight  years.  At  any  rate,  if  the  buyer  has 
reason  to  believe  that  he  may  want  to  sell  the  animal  within  a 


15  Years 


20  Years 
The  horse's  teeth  at  various 


12  Years 


20  Years 


JQicisors 


Molars 
Fig.  205. — Jaws  of  an  adult  horse. 


274   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

year  or  so,  and  wants  to  secure  not  less  than  the  purchase  price, 
he  should  not  purchase  an  animal  older  than  eight  years  unless 
there  is  every  indication  that  the  animal  is  perfectly  sound; 
even  then,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  there  is  little  demand  for 
horses  exceeding  eight  or  ten  years  in  age,  there  is  always  a 
question  of  being  able  to  dispose  of  them  on  short  notice. 

A  general  rule  for  determining  age  by  the  appearance  of  the 
teeth  follows,  but  this  should  not  be  considered  as  infallible. 
Quite  naturally  the  condition  of  the  teeth  is  affected  by  the 
nature  of  the  feed  an  animal  has  been  accustomed  to;  if  it 
has  been  hard,  tough,  or  gritty,  then,  of  course,  the  teeth  will 
be  shorter  or  more  worn  in  appearance  than  if  softer  feeds  have 
been  eaten. 

The  teeth  at  various  ages  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  205. 

The  colt  has  six  incisors,  or  front  teeth,  in  both  the  upper 
and  lower  jaw,  and  three  molars,  or  grinders,  on  either  side  in 
both.  The  permanent  set  which  replaces  these  includes  twelve 
more  molars,  three  being  added  to  each  side  of  both  jaws.  The 
horse  has  four  tusks  at  maturity,  but  these  seldom  appear  in 
mares,  and  when  they  do  are  poorly  developed.  Thus  the 
temporary  teeth  number  twenty-four,  while  the  permanent  set 
includes  from  thirty-six  to  forty,  depending  upon  whether  or 
not  the  tusks  are  present. 

The  incisors,  which  are  the  teeth  to  be  examined  in  determining 
age,  are  knowTi,  in  the  order  of  their  appearance  from  the  sides 
of  the  mouth  to  the  center,  as  "  corners,"  "  dividers,"  and  "  nip- 
pers"; the  grinders  are  examined  only  in  reference  to  their 
general  condition  of  evenness  and  soundness. 

One  to  Three  Years. — Nippers  appear  at  the  age  of  from  one  week 
to  ten  days,  the  uppers  being  cut  first  and  the  lowers  appearing 
soon  afterward;  dividers  appear  at  from  four  to  five  weeks,  and 
are  followed  in  eight  or  ten  months  by  the  corners.  The  tem- 
porary teeth  are  gradually  pushed  up  from  beneath  by  the  per- 
manent teeth,  the  process  of  shedding  them  beginning  at  two 
and  one-half  or  three  years  of  age.  Permanent  upper  nippers 
may  be  visible  at  three  years,  but  the  temporary  corners  and 
dividers  still  remain.  Usually  the  permanent  teeth  are  the 
shorter. 

Four  Years. — The  permanent  dividers  have  appeared  and  the 
temporary  corners  still  remain  but  are  worn  smooth  and  are 
much  smaller  than  the  permanent  teeth. 


LIVE   STOCK  275 

Five  Years. — A  full  set  of  permanent  teeth  is  present  and  the 
animal  is  said  to  have  a  "  full  mouth."  Nippers  and  dividers 
are  worn  almost  level,  but  retain  the  narrow  cavities  knovsTi  as 
"  cups,"  which  extend  lengthwise  through  the  crown.  Tusks 
have  appeared  in  the  male. 

Six  Years. — Corners  are  well  worn  and  dividers  retain  their 
cups,  but  the  nippers  are  either  worn  level  or  have  very  shallow 
cups. 

Seven  Yeai^s. — Corners  have  shallow  cups,  dividers  and  nip- 
pers have  none,  and  the  tusks  are  well  developed.  Usually  the 
upper  corners,  being  wider  than  the  lower  ones,  are  not  worn 
away  at  the  rear  but  project  somewhat  below  the  edge  of  the 
crown  of  the  lowers.  All  the  incisors  are  quite  white  and  have 
lost  their  former  yellow  tint. 

Eight  Years. — Corners  are  worn  level  and  begin  to  assume  an 
oval  cro\sTi  and  dividers  and  nippers  have  gro^n  thicker  from 
front  to  rear  and  have  decreased  in  -^ddth.  All  inchne  forward 
more  and  do  not  fit  together  so  nearly  endwise.  The  "  star  " 
appears  in  the  crown  approximately  half-wa}'  between  the  front 
enamel  and  that  at  or  near  the  center  of  the  crown  which  is 
knoN\Ti  as  the  "  center  "  enamel. 

N'itie  Years. — The  notch  found  in  the  corners  at  seven  has 
nearly  disappeared,  nippers  and  dividers  have  crowTis  quite  oval 
in  shape,  and  all  are  thicker  from  front  to  rear.  The  center 
enamel  is  nearer  that  at  the  rear  and  the  star  is  quite  distinct. 

Te7i  Years. — Corners  are  now  of  little  value  in  determining 
age  and  nippers  and  dividers  have  gro^\Ti  almost  round.  The 
star  is  nearer  the  center  of  the  crown  and  the  center  enamel  has 
assumed  a  triangular  shape  and  receded  toward  the  rear  of  the 
tooth. 

Fifteen  Years. — Dividers  and  nippers  are  distinctly  triangular, 
the  center  enamel  in  the  upper  ones  has  disappeared,  and  the 
star  has  reached  the  center  of  the  lower  ones.  All  incisors  pro- 
trude forward  and  are  very  thick  from  front  to  rear. 

Twenty  Years. — Nippers  and  dividers  are  thicker  from  front 
to  rear  than  from  side  to  side  and  their  crowns  have  pulled 
away  from  each  other;  corners  point  inward  and  the  jaw  has 
shrunk  until  it  is  very  narrow;  deep  notches  appear  in  the 
upper  corners  as  the  result  of  wear  against  the  rear  edges  of  the 
lowers;  all  protrude  forward  to  a  very  noticeable  extent  and 
set  wide  apart. 


276   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Size. — A  horse  weighing  from  nine  hundred  to  one  thousand 
pounds  is  sufficiently  heavy  for  all  ordinary  field  work.  Larger 
ones  do  not  possess  the  capacity  for  continued  climbing,  travel- 
ing over  rough  country,  or  subsisting  on  short  rations  that 
smaller  animals  do.  They  may  prove  satisfactory  for  level 
travehng  over  good  roads,  but  can  not  be  recommended  for 
mountain  travel. 

Build. — The  most  efficient  type  of  saddle  animal  for  mountain 
work  has  a  short  back,  is  high  at  the  withers  and  deep  from  there 
to  the  chest;  the  latter  is  full  and  very  broad,  the  legs  are  mod- 
erately short  and  are  straight  and  strong  with  compact  joints 
and  sound  hoofs;  the  head  is  wide  between  the  eyes  and  also 
between  the  ears  and  is  carried  well  up,  but  not  high,  when  travel- 
ing, the  nose  is  slightly  Roman,  and  the  eyes  are  large  and  clear 
and  show  very  httle  of  the  white. 

Color. — Only  three  colors,  with  their  variations,  actually  af- 
fect the  efficiency  of  a  saddle  animal;  these  are  white,  what  is 
known  as  "  pinto,"  and  "  buckskin."  The  first  usually  indi- 
cates inbreeding,  and  when  this  is  present  the  animal,  of  course, 
suffers  from  constitutional  weakness  in  one  or  more  forms.  This 
color  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  cream  color  of  a  distinct 
breed  of  horses  noted  for  their  great  intelligence. 

Pinto  horses,  which  may  also  be  known  as  "  paint,"  "  speckled," 
"  piebald,"  or  "caUco,"  are  descendants  of  the  Indian  pony,  are 
very  hardy  and  strong,  but  seldom  attain  great  size. 

Buckskin,  or  "  dun  "  or  "  claybank,"  horses  with  dark  stripes 
around  the  legs  above  and  below  the  knees  and  hock  joints  and 
another  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  spinal  column,  are 
descended  from  a  distinct  breed  of  Spanish  ponies  noted  for 
their  great  powers  of  endurance.  They  are  the  toughest  and 
hardiest  horses  that  can  be  secured,  are  intelligent  and  usually 
docile  unless  ill-treated,  and  are  seldom  vicious. 

Black  horses  may  suffer  more  from  heat  than  other  colors 
may,  bays  may  be  the  most  vicious,  and  chestnuts  may  have 
the  tenderest  skins,  but  actual  experience  in  the  field  has  failed 
to  prove  or  disprove  any  of  these  theories. 

General  Disposition. — Many  horses  resent  having  their  ears 
grasped  when  the  halter  or  bridle  is  to  be  adjusted  or  removed, 
they  object  to  being  slapped  on  the  side  or  flank,  do  not  hke  to 
be  rubbed  or  curried,  pull  back  or  kick  at  the  stall  or  other 
animals  when  tied,  and  acquire  many  unpleasant  habits  of  a 


LIVE  STOCK  277 

similar  nature.  Their  examination  in  this  respect  should  be 
very  thorough,  and  when  such  tendencies  are  showTi  should  con- 
stitute a  vahd  reason  for  rejection  of  the  animal.  The  common 
idea  that  such  animals  should  be  purchased  merely  because 
they  may  be  secured  for  less  money  is  a  mistake  that  should 
never  be  made;  animals  having  as  few  faults  as  possible  will 
prove  enough  of  a  problem  for  the  beginner  in  horsemanship. 

Eyes. — A  bhnd  or  partially  bhnd  horse  is  practically  worth- 
less for  saddle  use,  and  should  never  be  secured  for  such  work. 
The  defect  is  often  difficult  to  detect  by  casual  observation  of  the 
animal's  eyes  and  the  examination  in  this  respect  can  not  be 
too  thorough. 

A  very  satisfactory  method  of  doing  this  is  to  take  the  animal 
from  the  stable  into  strong  sunlight;  if  the  lids  or  pupils  shrink 
the  sight  is  defective  or  at  least  weak;  the  change  of  hght  should 
not  cause  any  discomfort. 

Another  means  of  determining  defective  eyesight  is  to  pass 
the  hand  quickly  across  an  animal's  fine  of  vision  and  close  to 
the  eyes;  when  this  is  done  and  no  apparent  notice  of  it  is 
taken  by  the  animal  the  eyes  are  wholly  or  partially  sightless. 

A  good,  strong,  sound  eye  is  clear,  the  ball  ghstens,  has  a  regu- 
lar contour,  and  is  not  spotted  or  blotched;  the  white  should 
be  clear  in  color  \\T.th  only  the  faintest  trace  of  minute  thread- 
like blood-vessels  showing  beneath  the  surface.  Excessive  lach- 
rymal secretions  indicate  an  injm-ed  eye  and  should  be  carefully 
investigated.  A  "  glass  "  eye  is  not  necessarily  weak,  but  its 
presence  always  lessens  the  market  value  of  an  animal.  In  old 
horses  the  eyeball  is  distinctly  sunken  in  the  socket. 

Pulse. — Normal  heart  action  is  approximately  as  follows: 

Colt,  two  to  four  weeks  old  70  to  90  beats  per  minute 

Colt,  six  to    twelve  months  45    "60 

Colt,    two    to    three     years  40    "50 

Mare 35    "  40 

Gelding 33    "38 

Stallion 28    "  32 

The  pulse  may  be  observed  by  placing  the  ear  against  the 
animal's  left  side  just  to  the  rear  of  the  elbow  joint.  A  dull, 
regular,  thudding  sound  indicates  a  healthy  heart;  wheezing, 
roaring,  ratthng,  or  irregular  sounds  indicate  the  opposite. 

Another  method  of  observing  t!ie  pulse  is  to  place  the  fingers 


278   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

up  under  and  between  the  lower  jaws  immediately  behind  the 
flat  cheek  muscles;  if  the  pulse  is  not  located  at  once  the  fingers 
should  be  moved  forward  or  backward  or  otherwise  until  the 
right  spot  has  been  reached. 

Respiration. — This  should  be  regular  and  without  severe  mus- 
cular effort,  and  in  a  healthy  animal  occurs  at  the  approximate 
rate  of  one  breath  to  every  three  beats  of  the  heart.  Unless 
the  respiratory  system  is  deranged  the  breaths  are  inaudible 
except  at  very  close  range. 

Many  animals  suffering  from  improper  respiration  develop 
symptoms  when  strenuously  exercised  that  are  not  apparent 
during  inactivity;  for  that  reason  it  is  always  well  to  give  them 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes  of  Uvely  exercise  before  the  purchase  is 
made. 

Hearing. — If  an  animal  is  spoken  to  sharply  at  a  time  when 
it  happens  to  be  looking  away  from  the  speaker  its  observation 
of  the  sound  will  be  indicated  by  a  sudden  twitch  of  the  ears 
or  head  toward  the  direction  of  the  sound.  If  no  such  action 
results  its  hearing  is  probably  impaired. 

Legs. — The  distance  from  the  body  between  the  fore  legs  to 
the  ground  should  be  about  the  same  as  that  from  the  withers 


Aaferior  Extensor 

Oblique  Extensor 

Anterior  Extensor 

to  Coffin  bone 

lateral  Extensor 


Metacarpal  Ligament 
of  Perforans  Tendon 
Flexor  Perforans  Tendon 
uspenaorj  LigameDt 


Flexor  Perforans 
Tarsal  Sheath 


Front  leg.  Hind  leg. 

Fig.  206. — Principal  tendons  and  ligaments  on  the  horse's  legs. 


to  the  body  at  the  same  point,  the  legs  should  set  well  apart  at 
the  breast,  be  straight  and  well  muscled  from  the  knee  upward, 
and  the  knees  should  not  buckle  forward.  The  hind  legs  should 
be  fairly  straight  at  the  hock  joints,  and  the  portions  above 
these  joints  should  be  full  and  weU  muscled.  None  of  the 
joints  in  any  of  the  legs  should  buckle  in  any  du-ection,  bear 
any  unnatural  enlargements,  or  appear  stiff. 

Hoofs. — Sound  hoofs  have  straight,  symmetrical  walls,  broad 
heels,  a  full  frog,  and  a  generally  oily  appearance.  Flaring, 
bell-shaped,   cracked,  or  otherwise  disfigured  hoofs  are  to  be 


LIVE  STOCK 


279 


avoided.     No  horse  with  unsound  hoofs  will  give  satisfaction  as 
a  saddle  animal. 

Gaits. — The  animal  should  be  ridden  at  various  rates  of  speed 
for  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles,  during  which  a  general  test 
of  its  traveling  capacity  may  be  made.  A  running  walk  is  a 
very  desirable  gait;  a  "  pace,"  in  which  the  animal  moves  the 
the  legs  of  one  side  simultaneously,  is  to  be  avoided;  a  slow 
trot  is  a  satisfactory  gait  provided  there  is  sufl5cient  spring  in 


Upper  Pastern 

Lower  Pastern 

Coffin 


each  leg) 
annon 
Sesamoid. 

eg) 
pper  Pastern  Bone 
war  Pastem^ona 
Naricular  Bona 


Fig.  207. — Bones  of  the  horse. 


the  joints  to  reUeve  the  rider  of  continual  jarring;  a  "  short 
lope  "  or  a  slow  gallop  is  suitable  for  level  travehng  but  is  ahiiost 
useless  in  the  mountains;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  "  single 
foot  "  gait. 

IDENTIFICATION    OF    STOCK 

Obviouslj',  when  cattle  or  other  stock  belonging  to  a  number 
of  different  owners  use  a  common  range,  there  must  be  some 
means  possible  whereby  each  owner  may  identify  his  own  prop- 
erty. Consequently  a  system  of  identification,  based  on  visible 
marks  of  o\\Tiership  appUed  in  some  manner  to  an  animal's  body, 
has  developed  automatically  until  at  the  present  time  it  has 
reached  a  stage  where  the  inexperienced  person  has  good  reason 
to  feel  completely  bewildered  as  he  attempts  to  decipher  some  of 


280   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

the  characters  used.  Unfortunately  their  selection  and  appHca- 
tion  are  not  controlled  by  any  fixed  rule  except  the  one  statu- 
tory in  nature  in  most  States  prohibiting  different  owTiers  in  the 
same  locaUty  from  adopting  the  same  characters  of  identifi- 
cation. If  their  cattle  are  branded  aUke  then  the  ear  marks 
must  differ,  and  vice  versa.  The  subject  presents  rather  a  dif- 
ficult problem  to  elucidate  in  an  intelligent  manner,  but  it  is  be- 
Heved  that  careful  attention  to  the  following  remarks  will  pro- 
vide the  inexperienced  field  man  with  at  least  a  fairly  accurate 
working  knowledge  of  the  different  methods  used  and  of  the 
designations  and  other  terms  appHcable  to  each: 

Methods  Used. — The  methods  most  widely  used  are  applied, 
in  the  order  of  their  prominence,  in  the  forms  of:  (1)  Brands; 
(2)  Ear  Marks;  (3)  Ear  Buttons;  (4)  Ear  Loops;  (5)  Ear  Tags; 
and  (6)  Dewlaps,  which  will  be  discussed  in  this  order. 

I.  Brands. — These  may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes, 
viz.:  (1)  Fire  Brands;  (2)  Inscribed  Brands;  and  (3)  Paint 
Brands.  The  first  are  made  by  burning  characters  on  an  ani- 
mal's hide,  hoofs,  or  horns;  the  second  are  cut  or  inscribed  in 
the  horns  or  hoofs;  and  the  third  are  made  by  smearing  tar 
or  paint  on  an  animal,  and  are  sometimes  designated  as  "  tar  " 
brands. 

Fire  Brands. — These  are  applied  by  means  of  a  heated  iron. 
When  only  a  few  animals  are  to  be  branded  they  are  either  cast 
or  tied  as  shown  in  Fig.  208.  In  the  latter  case  they  are  tied 
with  what  is  known  as  a  "  branding  rig."  This  consists  of  a 
bowline  on  a  bight  (see  page  327),  fastened  about  the  neck,  the 
loose  end  of  the  rope  being  passed  about  the  rear  pastern,  on 
the  side  opposite  that  to  which  the  brand  is  to  be  applied,  and 
the  corresponding  foot  is  raised  from  the  ground.  This  prevents 
the  animal  from  rearing,  kicking,  or  running,  and  unless  it  is 
very  active  or  vicious  will  also  prevent  it  from  striking. 

If  a  large  number  of  animals  are  to  be  branded,  they  may  be 
driven  into  a  branding  "  chute,"  which  is  fitted  with  bars  to 
prevent  them  from  passing  forward  or  backing  out  before  the 
brand  is  applied. 

The  irons  used  in  fire  branding  are  knowTi  as:  (1)  Stamp 
Irons;    (2)  Bar  Irons;   and  (3)  Running  Irons. 

(1)  Stamp  Irons. — These  are  usually  about  20  inches  long  by 
J^-inch  in  diameter.  The  character,  or  combination  of  characters, 
to  be  used  as  a  brand,  are  of  iron  and  are  welded  to  one  end  of 


i 


LIVE  STOCK 


281 


the  handle  and  at  right  angles  to  it.  This  end  of  the  iron  is 
heated  and  the  character  is  then  pressed  against  the  animal's 
skin  and  held  there  as  long  as  the  experience  of  the  operator 
dictates.  If  held  against  the  skin  too  long,  a  blurred  or  indis- 
tinct brand,  known  as  a  "  bone  "  brand,  will  be  the  result;    if 


Fig.  208. — Branding  Rij 


removed  too  quickly,  no  permanent,  or  at  least  no  visible,  scar 
will  be  left,  and  the  animal  is  "  hair  "  branded.  The  term 
"hair  brand"  is  also  appUed  to  a  character  clipped  in  an  animal's 
wool  or  hair. 

A  proper  knowledge  of  the  length  of  time  required  to  leave 
a  permanently  visible  scar  can  be  obtained  only  through  prac- 
tice. The  factors  of  heat,  variety  of  iron  used,  and  pressure  ap- 
plied to  the  iron,  all  have  direct  influences  on  the  satisfactory 
apphcation  of  the  iron. 

(2)  Bar  Irons. — These  differ  from  stamp  irons  in  that  they  have 
only  a  bar  welded  to  the  lower  end  of  the  handle  and  at  right 
angles  to  it.  Ordinarily  this  bar  is  about  34-inch  thick,  2  or 
3  inches  long,  and  1  or  2  inches  wide.  In  using  such  an  iron 
the  operator  makes  only  a  portion  of  the  desired  character  at 
a  time,  using  either  the  long  or  short  edge  or  one  corner  of  the 
bar.     Its  use  is  confined  chiefly  to  open  range  work,  where  it 


282   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

can  be  carried  on  the  saddle  with  less  inconvenience  than  a 
stamp  iron.  By  reason  of  the  longer  time  required  in  applying 
a  brand  with  it,  it  is  not  as  convenient  in  this  respect  as  a  stamp 
U'on. 

3.  Running  Irons. — These  are  either  straight  or  hooked  iron 
bars  which,  when  heated,  are  used  in  tracing  characters  on  an 
animal's  skin.  Hooked  irons  are  especially  convenient  because, 
turned  edgewise,  the  hook  may  be  used  in  tracing  straight  hues 
and  turned  sidewise  or  flat  may  be  used  in  burning  curves. 

Another  form  of  running  iron  is  a  plain  iron  ring,  usually 
about  23^  or  3  inches  in  diameter,  and  made  of  %-  or  3^-inch 
iron.  This  is  heated  and  then  appHed  by  means  of  short  sticks, 
secured  on  the  open  range,  and  used  tong  fashion.  The  chief 
advantage  of  this  iron  is  the  convenience  with  which  it  may  be 
carried. 

Many  stockmen  prefer  copper  rings,  this  preference  being  due 
to  the  fact  that  such  rings  heat  more  quickly  and  uniformly 
than  common  iron  rings. 

Some  State  legislatures  have  passed  laws  prohibiting  the  use 
of  running  irons,  the  reason  for  such  action  no  doubt  being  the 
slowness  with  which  brands  are  appUed  by  their  use. 

Location  of  Fire  Brands. — There  is  no  fixed  rule  governing  the 
location  of  fire  brands,  but  there  are  general  customs  of  apply- 
ing them  to  specified  parts  of  different  animals.  For  example: 
Horses  and  mules  are  usually  branded  on  the  shoulder  or  on  the 
lower  portion  of  the  hip  as  shown  in  Fig.  209;  cattle  are  branded 
on  the  shoulder,  hip,  side,  or  back,  frequently  on  the  neck,  and 
occasionally  on  the  forehead.  Burros,  in  addition  to  being 
branded  the  same  as  horses  and  mules,  are  quite  frequently 
branded  on  the  neck.  Fire  brands  on  sheep  or  goats  are  apphed 
to  the  side  of  the  nose,  this  location  for  the  brand  being  used 
because  fire  brands  on  other  parts  of  the  body  would  be  com- 
pletely hidden  by  the  wool.  Hogs  are  seldom  branded^  but  are 
invariably  ear-marked. 

Cancelation   of  Fire   Brands. — When   ownership    of  stock   is 

1  In  response  to  an  inquiry  as  to  whether  a  brand  would  discolor  the 
meat  of  a  hog  through  to  the  bone,  in  accordance  with  a  very  common 
idea,  the  packing  firm  of  Armour  &  Company  repUed  that  possibly, 
if  the  iron  were  too  hot,  the  brand  might  show  to  a  depth  of  M-inch 
below  the  skin.  Swift  &  Company  repUed  that  they  had  had  no 
experience  with  branded  hogs. 


LIVE  STOCK 


283 


transferred  from  one  person  to  another  it  is  customary  to  cancel 
the  former  owner's  brand  and  thus  remove  his  visible  title  to 
the  property. 


Shoulder  brand. 


Thigh  brand. 


Hip  brand. 


Rib  brand. 


Fig.  209. 


Neck  brand. 


^^^len  this  has  been  done  the  new  owner  then  applies  his  own 
brand  to  the  animal. 


284   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Cancelation  of  a  brand  may  be  effected  in  either  of  two 
ways,  viz.:    (1)  Barring  out;    (2)  Venting. 

(1)  Barring  Out. — This  consists  merely  in  superimposing  a  bar, 
slash,  or  rail  across  the  former  owner's  brand  as  shown  in  Fig. 
210,  where  the  brand  N  has  been  barred  out  with  a  slash  and 
the  brand  C  with  a  rail.  The  brand  K  is  canceled  with  a  bar. 
This  method  of  cancelation  is  used  on  both  horses  and  cattle. 

(2)  Venting. — Cancelation  by  venting  is  commonly  used  on 
cattle  and  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  211.  It  consists  merely  in  ap- 
plying a  facsimile  of  a  brand  to  the  shoulder  corresponding  to 


Fig. 


210. — Jaw  brand.     Also  cancelation  of  shoulder  brand  by  rail 
and  of  thigh  brand  by  bar. 


the  side  carrying  the  original  brand.  Thus  a  brand  on  any 
part  of  the  left  side  is  vented  by  an  apphcation  of  its  facsimile 
to  the  left  shoulder,  while  brands  on  the  right  side  are  vented 
on  the  right  shoulder.     Horses  are  seldom  vented. 


Fig.  211. — Cancelation  by  vent. 


Inscribed  Brands — These  are  cut  in  the  hoofs  or  horns  by 
means  of  an  instrument  known  as  a  "  scribe  "  or  they  may  be 


LIVE   STOCK  285 

burned  in  with  a  fine  running  or  stamp  iron.  Their  use  is  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  horns  of  sheep  and  goats,  to  the  horns  of 
exhibition  or  gi-aded  cattle  kept  in  pastures  and  to  the  hoofs  of 
army  horses  and  mules.  ^ 

They  are  never  applied  to  the  hoofs  of  range  horses.  Nat- 
ural growth  of  the  hoofs  necessitates  reappUcation  of  the  brands 
about  every  four  months. 

Paint  Brands. — These  are  made  by  smearing  tar  or  paint  on 
an  animal's  hair  or  wool  and  may  be  known  in  some  localities 
as  "  hair  "  brands,  although  this  term  is  usually  apphed  to  tem- 
porary brands  clipped  in  the  hair  or  wool.  They  may  be  smeared 
on  with  a  straight  stick  or  stamped  on  by  means  of  a  stamp 
shown  in  Fig.  213. 

Characters  Used  as  Brands. — These  include:  (1)  All  the  con- 
ventional letters  and  figures;  (2)  Other  conventional  characters; 
(3)  Arbitrary  symbols;    and  (4)  Combinations  of  the  preceding 


1  A.  W.  1083:  "Public  animals  shall,  upon  the  day  received,  be 
branded  with  the  letters  US  on  the  left  fore  shoulder.  (Sub^)  Horses 
assigned  to  organizations  wiU  also  be  branded  on  the  hoof  of  one  fore 
foot  1 31>  inches  below  the  coronet,  with  the  designation  of  the  company. 
Branding  irons  of  imiform  size  and  design  will  be  supplied  by  the 
Quartermaster's  Department.  Letters  and  numbers  of  hoof  brands 
on  the  same  line  to  be  three-fourths  of  an  inch  high,  the  letter  to  pre- 
cede the  number,  and  blocked  so  as  to  penetrate  the  hoof  one-sixteenth 
of  an  inch.  For  example,  the  hoof  brands  on  horses  assigned  to  Band, 
Ninth  Cavalry,  would  be  CB9;  to  Troop  A,  Fifth  Caval^J^  would  be 
A5;  to  the  Band,  Second  Regiment,  Field  Artillery,  would  be  BA4; 
to  Company  A,  BattaHon  of  Engineers,  would  be  BE  A." 

Excerpt,  A.  W.  922:  "...  Condemned  animals  will  be  branded 
IC  on  the  neck  imder  the  mane.   .  ."      (Sub  ^.) 

A.  W.  108^:  "Any  alteration  in  the  length  or  shape  of  the  tails, 
manes,  or  forelocks  of  pubhc  horses  by  docking,  banging  or  clipping,  is 
prohibited,  and  only  such  reasonable  trimming  and  plucking  as  may 
be  necessary  to  prevent  shagginess  of  appearance  is  permitted." 

(Sub.  1.)  In  response  to  an  inquiry  as  to  whether  the  term  left 
"fore"  shoulder  has  any  special  significance  or  whether  it  is  merely 
redundant  the  War  Department  through  the  Quartermaster-General's 
office  rephed:  "Animals  purchased  for  the  army  are  branded  on  the 
left  fore  shoulder  on  the  flat  place  over  the  true  arm  as  shown  in  in- 
closed diagram."  This  diagram  is  reproduced  herewith.  However, 
the  term  is  redundant.  A  horse  has  no  "rear"  shoulder,  and  its  hip 
is  never  referred  to  as  its  "rear"  hip. 

(Sub.  -.)  The  letters  IC  are  the  initials  of  "Inspected;  Condemned," 
and  indicate  that  after  inspection  the  animal  has  for  some  reason  been 
found  unfit  for  army  use  and  has  accordingly  been  condemned. 


286   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

three.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  characters  used  as  a 
brand  do  not  necessarily  represent  an  owner's  initials,  the  age 
of  the  animal,  its  number  in  a  herd,  or  any  other  specific  fact 


Fig.  212.— Army  brand.i  Fig.  213. 

except  an  indication  of  title  as  this  is  recorded  with  the  proper 
authorities. 

Conventional  Letters  and  Figures. — These  are  shown  in  their 
various  positions  in  Fig.  214,  each  position  being  explained  in 


Conventional  Letters  arid  Figur,e£ 

5 

u 

p 

! 

a 

B  a 
o   o 

•t3 

1 

1 

o 

a 

1 

^ 
^ 

6C 

a 

a 

1 

s 
§ 
^ 

0) 

0 

4 

JJ 

ri 

^ 

r- 

If 

L^ 

14 

<€ 

K 

>1 

K 

A 

^ 

]{ 

K. 

K 

X 

Fig.  214. 


accordance  with  its  theoretical  reading.     But,  following  a  local 
custom,  the  flying  K  may  be  read  as  7K;    the  walking  K  may 


1  Supplied    by    Quartermaster-General's    oflQce, 
U.  S.  A. 


War    Department, 


LIVE  STOCK 


287 


Other  Conventional 
Characters 


Arbitrary  Symbols 


Figure  1 

— 

Bar 

/ 

Slash 

\ 

Rail 

A 

Rafter 

A 

Triangle 

O 

Diamond 

n 

Staple 

n 

Square 

r^ 

Half  Circle 

o 

Circle 

(=^ 

Half  Moon 

i^ 

Star 

Fig.  215. 

be  knowTi  as  LKL  con- 
nected; and  the  crooked  K 
may  be  read  as  Half-circle 
C  connected  or  as  YC  con- 
nected. The  flying  4  may 
be  kno-^Ti  as  74F  connected, 
and  the  walking  4  as  VL  or 
4L  connected.  In  some 
localities  a  "leaning  "  char- 
acter is  known  as  "  flying  " ; 
and  "  walking,"  "  square," 
and  "  crooked  "  characters 
may  not  be  designated  as 
such. 

Other  Conventional  Characters. 
explained  in  Fig.  215. 


Y 

Spur 

? 

Winecup 

n 

Hat 

<t5 

Stirrup 

W 

Beanpot 

b. 

Roekingchair 

^ 

Clawhammer 

rV 

Oil  can 

3 

Bud 

W 

Bit 

1 

Bush 

'^ 

Fan 

^ 

Saddle 

t/ 

Head 

K 

Bowknot 

<^ 

Clover  leaf 

Y\ 

Coffee  pot 

P 

Thunderbolt 

>^ 

Double  cross 

\-^ 

Frying  pan 

Fig.  216. 

These   are   illustrated   and 
No  distinction  may  be  made  in  some 


288   HANDBOOK  FOE  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

localities  between  a  "  bar  "  and  a  "  figure  1,"  or  between  "  rails 
and  "  slashes."     A  "  square  "  may  be  known  as  a  "  box,"  and 
a  half -circle  as  a  "swipe";    otherwise  the  classifications  here 
given  are  common  to  most  parts  of  the  country. 

Arbitrary  Symbols. — These  are  shown  and  classified  in  Fig. 
216.  The  classifications  given  are  common  to  all  localities  and 
the  characters  will  be  found  widely  used. 

Combinations. — Combination  brands  may  include  any  of  the 
letters,  figures  or  other  characters  heretofore  referred  to,  and  a 
few  of  the  more  common  ones  are  shown  in  Fig.  217.  They 
may  appear  in  a  group  at  one  place  on  an  animal's  body  or  they 
may  appear  singly  or  in  separate  groups  at  different  places.  The 
brand  known  as  a  "  breeching  "  consists  of  a  bar  across  the 
rear  side  of  both  hams  above  the  hocks.  A  "  halter  "  is  a  rail 
applied  on  the  side  of  the  nose.  A  "  hip  strap  "  is  a  bar  run 
across  the  back  or  hips  and  usually  connects  a  combination  brand 
applied  to  both  sides  of  the  animal. 

Reading  Brands. — ^Theoretically,  brands  are  read  from  left  to 
right  and  downward,  but  this  rule  is  often  disregarded  when 
other  methods  of  reading  prove  more  convenient,  such  disre- 
gard being  especially  characteristic  of  stock  owners  who  graze 
their  stock  on  a  common  range.  In  such  cases  each  owner 
is  familiar  with  all  the  brands  in  his  locality  and  his  description 
of  a  brand,  while  it  may  be  perfectly  intelligible  to  his  fellov/ 
stockmen,  may  mean  little  or  nothing  to  the  person  not  familiar 
with  the  brand. 

Local  designations  of  the  same  character  may  vary  and  it  is 
not  advisable  to  contend  that  a  character  is  any  other  than  that 
recognized  locally.  What  one  stockman  may  call  a  slash  an- 
other may  know  as  a  rail,  there  being  no  hard  and  fast  rules 
of  designation. 

If  an  animal  carries  a  number  of  uncanceled  brands  or  a  com- 
bination brand  the  reading  is  from  front  to  rear.  Taking,  for 
example,  the  fourth  brand  from  the  top  in  Fig.  217:  If  the  A 
appears  on  the  jaw,  the  bar  on  the  ribs  or  back  and  the  Y  on 
the  hip  or  thigh,  the  brand  is  read  theoretically  as  "  A-Bar-Y, 
jaw  to  ribs  (or  back)  to  hip  (or  thigh),"  but  in  most  instances 
is  shortened  simply  to  "  A-Bar-Y." 

Changing  Brands. — This  is  a  form  of  thievery  which,  although 
it  was  widely  practiced  on  the  western  ranges  in  the  early  days 
of  the  cattle  industry,  is  now  punishable  by  such  severe  penal- 


Combination  Brands 

-0£ 

Bar  0  Two 
Bar  Circle  Two 

^B 

Seven  Slash  B 

J" 

J  P  Combined 

-^ 

A  Bar  Y 

¥/r- 

Reversed  i  Slash  Lazy  L 

^ 

Half  Circle  D 

^ 

Rafter  Triangle  Bar 

V7 

V7  Two  Bars 

(S 

Stirrup  Dot  Bar 

-^ 

Flying  M  Diamond 

Sb 

Fifty-six  Connected 

GD 

G  Square 
GBox 

1/2 

One-half 

One  Slash  Two 

1 — 1 

Lazy  3  Bar  H 

H\ 

M  A  Connected 

V\ 

Bit  Bar 

^ 

Bowknot  0 
Bowknot  Circle 

® 

OX 
Circle  X 

b-' 

Square  B  F  Connected 

"P 

B  L  Combined 

Fig.  217. 


290        HANDBOOK    FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

ties  that  few  cases  occur.     The  two  principal  methods  of  chang- 
ing brands  are  known  as  "  running  "  and  "  sleepering." 

Running. — To  run  a  brand  the  operator  merely  adds  to  or 
changes  it  or  else  superimposes  another  upon  it.  Thus  P  may 
be  run  into  R  by  adding  a  rail  to  the  P,  or  it  may  be  changed 
to  B  by  adding  a  quarter  circle  to  the  P.  The  brand  US  may 
easily  be  run  into  08,  and  no  difficulty  whatever  would  be 
experienced  in  running  FI  into  ET,  EL,  or  EH.  A  more  diffi- 
cult feat  of  running  a  brand  is  to  run  X  I  T  into  Star  Cross  but 
it  has  been  done  thus^: 


^ 


Such  brands  as  the  Flying  Y  J  Bar  and  the  V  Dart  can 
hardly  be  run  without  great  danger  of  detection. 

Sleepering. — This  operation  consists  merely  of  burning  part  of 
a  brand  so  lightly  that  no  permanently  visible  scar  is  left,  thereby 
making  it  possible  to  retrace  and  add  to  the  brand  later  without 
arousing  suspicion.  For  instance :  Assuming  that  Jones  runs  the 
Diamond  iron  and  Smith  the  W  iron,  Jones  finds  one  of  Smith's 
calves  on  the  range,  brands  it  with  a  W,  and  keeps  it  separated 
from  its  mother  until  it  is  weaned.  However,  he  burns  the  W  in 
very  Hghtly  though  severely  enough  not  to  arouse  suspicion  except 
upon  the  very  closest  examination,  and  even  if  Smith  or  one 
of  his  men  happens  to  discover  the  calf  he  naturally  assumes 
that  one  of  the  other  men  employed  by  Smith  branded  it,  and 
that  the  brand  is  therefore  genuine.  But  as  soon  as  a  new 
growth  of  hair  covers  the  burn,  usually  in  less  than  two  months, 
Jones  rebrands  the  caK  with  his  Diamond,  running  the  lower 
half  of  the  Diamond  over  one  half  of  the  W,  and  thereby  obfit- 
erating  the  last  trace  of  the  letter.  Consequently,  by  reason  of 
the  apparently  fresh  brand  appearing  on  a  calf  unaccompanied 
by  one  of  Smith's  cows,  neither  Smith  nor  his  men  will  suspect 
Jones  of  sleepering  if  they  happen  to  observe  the  caK.  This 
method  of  thievery  is  easily  detected  if  the  State  law  requires 
ear-marks  with  brands.  Obviously,  in  such  a  case  a  calf  branded 
in  Jones's  iron  but  ear-marked  with  Smith's  mark  would  excite 
suspicion.     Suspicion  would  also  attach  to  a  branded  but  un- 

•'*  It  is  said  tliat  rimning  this  brand  in  such  a  manner  cost  a  Texas 
cattle  company  more  than  $20,000.00  in  loss  by  theft. 


LIVE   STOCK  291 

marked  calf  or  to  a  caK  bearing  ear-marks  which  had  evidently 
been  "  worked  over." 

2.  Ear-marks. — As  their  name  indicates,  these  are  certain 
marks  cut  in  the  ears  of  animals  and,  like  brands,  they  are  used 
as  a  means  of  identification.  Hog-raisers  in  the  South  rely 
almost  whoUy  upon  them  for  this  purpose,  while  cattle  in  those 
sections  are  seldom  branded  but  are  invariably  ear-marked. 
In  the  West,  however,  brands  are  usually  accompanied  by  ear- 
marks, such  a  combination  facilitating  identification  when  one 
or  the  other  may  closely  resemble  that  of  some  other  owTier. 

Ear-marks  may  be  appHed  to  all  classes  of  stock  but  are  sel- 
dom used  on  horses  or  mules.  They  are,  however,  frequently 
applied  to  burros. 

Classifications. — For  greater  convenience  in  explaining  them 
here,  ear-marks  will  be  divided  into  fourteen  general  classes,  viz., 
(1)  Crops;  (2)  Half-crops;  (3)  Grubs;  (4)  Sphts;  (5)  Swallow- 
forks;  (6)  Staples;  (7)  HaK-moons;  (8)  Bits;  (9)  Scallops; 
(10)  Slopes;  (11)  Hacks;  (12)  SUts;  (13)  Figure  7's;  and 
(14)  Holes.  These  may  be  further  classified  as  "  over  "  and 
"  under  "  haK-crops,  staples,  bits,  scallops,  slopes,  hacks,  and 
figure  7's,  the  term  "over"  applying  to  those  cut  in  the  upper 
edge  of  the  ear,  "  under  "  referring  to  those  cut  in  the  under 
edge.  Sphts,  swallow-forks,  staples,  half-moons,  bits,  scallops, 
slopes,  hacks,  and  figure  7'6  may  be  cut  through  the  interior 


Fig.  218. — Ear  punch  and  dies. 

parts  of  the  ear,  but  not  out  through  the  edge,  and  are  then 
classified  with  the  prefix  "  inner."  SKts  and  holes  are  always 
cut  within  the  ear-edges.  They  may  be  made  with  a  common 
pocket-knife,  or  with  punch  and  dies  like  those  illustrated  in 
Fig.  218. 

Reading  Ear -marks. — Theoretically  these  are  read  by  start- 
ing at  the  mark  nearest  the  head  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  right 
ear  and  following  around  the  ear  downward  and  back  to  the 


292   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

head,  reading  each  mark  as  it  is  reached.  IVIarks  in  the  left 
ear  are  then  read  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  marks  showTi  in  Fig.  219  are  assumed  as  being  observed 
from  the  front.  Thus  the  right  ear  is  at  the  reader's  left  and 
the  left  ear  at  his  right. 

Since  ear-marks,  like  brands,  are  subject  to  designations 
fixed  by  local  custom,  the  foregoing  classifications  must  be 
modified  accordingly.  Local  methods  of  applying  marks  may 
be  responsible  for  a  similarity  in  the  shape  of  bits,  staples,  and 
half-scallops;  swallow  forks,  end  staples  and  half-moons; 
figure  7's,  half -crops  and  bits;  and  crops  and  half -grubs.  Little 
or  no  distinction  is  made  in  the  West  between  bits,  staples,  and 
half-scallops,  all  of  which  may  be  known  as  bits.  Hacks,  slits, 
and  splits  may  all  be  known  as  splits,  while  half-moons  and  end 
staples  may  be  classified  as  swallow  forks  in  some  sections  and 
bits  in  others.^ 

The  ones  shown  constitute  the  varieties  of  marks  most  widely 
used.  There  are  several  others  possible,  but  they  have  not  been 
found  satisfactory,  principally  because  stock  bearing  them  are 
liable  to  tear  their  ears  on  brush  or  barbed-wire  fences  or  have 
them  torn  off  by  dogs  and  thus  partially  or  wholly  obliterate 
the  marks.  Among  the  more  unsatisfactory  marks  may  be 
mentioned  the  "  swipe,"  starting  near  the  center  of  the  ear, 
describing  a  half-circle  and  ending  near  the  outer  edge  of  the 
ear;  the  "  X,"  a  cross  cut  through  the  ear;  the  "  paddle,"  a 
sUt  terminating  in  a  hole;  the  "  box,"  a  removal  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  interior  of  the  ear  leaving  only  a  narrow  strip 
around  the  edge;  and  the  "  jingle  bob,"  which  is  made  by 
cutting  the  ear  in  such  a  way  that  a  large  portion  of  it  droops 
or  hangs  down  beside  the  animal's  jaw. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  there  is  practically  no  hmit  to  the 
number  of  marks  possible  and  that  the  proper  reading  of  certain 
combination  marks  may  be  attended  with  more  or  less  difficulty. 
This  is  especially  true  in  reading  marks  in  ears  that  have  been 
cut  or  remarked  in  such  a  manner  that  they  lop  down.^ 

1  The  readings  given  here  are  in  accordance  with  general  usage  rather 
than  theoretical  rules. 

^  Examination  of  a  cow's  ear  will  show  that  two  large  cords  run 
lengthwise  through  its  center.  If  a  split  is  made  beneath  the  lower 
cord  the  portion  of  the  ear  under  the  split  will  drop  till  the  mark  re- 
sembles a  wide  swallow  fork  rather  than  a  split.  Unless  the  swallow 
fork  eflfect  Is  desired  the  split  should  be  cut  between  the  cords. 


i 


I 


LIVE   STOCK 


293 


Right  Ear. 


Left  Ear. 


Half-grub. 

It  will  be  observed  that 
the  half-grub  removes 
half  of  the  ear. 


ca:3:> 


Crop.orsmoothcrop,and 
inner  over  half-scallop. 
The    smooth    crop    re- 
moves     approximately 
one-fourth  of  the  ear. 


Grub. 

The  grub  removes  the 

entire  ear  and  is  a  mark 

as  imnecessary  as  it  is 

unsightly  and  injurious . 

The  passage  to  the  inner  ear  frequently  grows  shut  as  the  woiind  heals. 


:::o 


Split. 

Splits  terminate  at  the 
end  rather  than  at  the 
edges  of  the  ears. 


Over  slope. 

If  both  an  over  slope 
and  an  under  slope  are 
cut  in  the  same  ear  the 
ear  is  said  to  be  "point- 
ed" or  "sharpened." 


Under  slope. 


Swalloif  fork. 
Swallow  forks  terminate 
at  the  edge  of  the  ear 
tip.    They  may  also  be 
designated  as  "bits." 


0:2> 


Over  bit. 

Bits  terminate  at  the 
ear  edge.  They  are 
usually  smaller  than 
swallow   forks. 


Inner  slope  and  under 
figure  7. 

Inner  slopes  are  seldom 
used,  as  they  are  very 
vmsatisfactory  in  brush. 


Under  bit. 

/^"Z^^^^^^^-V^       ^    Figm-e  7's  may  also  be 
\.  A     y    known  as  "bits." 


Over  hack. 

Hacks  terminate  at  the 

3dge  of  the  ear. 


y^ — r"-^  I  -'I       X.        Over  fi.gure  7  and  under 


Dver  half-scallop  and 
inner  under  bit. 
Scallops  and  half- 
scallops  are  cut  round- 
ed rather  than  sharp 
like  bits.  Inner  bits  are 
seldom  used. 


Ca.-^4Co^ 


Under  half-scallop. 


Over  scallop. 

Scallops  may  be  known 

as  double  bits. 


V  ^L/-)^   ^      Half-crops 

^. ^"T^^iCL^       known  eitl 


Under  scallop  over  half- 


are     often 
either  as  bits  or 
swallow  forks. 


Under     half-crop     and 
over  staple. 

Staples   may  often   be 
known  as  bits. 


Inner    half -moon    and 
end  staple. 

Inner    half-moons    are 
seldom  used. 


Under  staple. 

This  may  also  be  known 

as  an  under  bit. 


Half -moon    and     inner 

under  staple. 

Inner  staples  are  seldom 

used. 


Inner  swallow  fork  and 

hole. 

Inner  swallow  forks  and 

holes  are  seldom  used. 


Inner  split,  inner  hack 
and  split. 

Inner  splits  and  inner 
hacks  are  seldom  ixsed. 


Fro.  219. 


294        HANDBOOK    FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

3.  Ear  Buttons. — These  are  used  chiefly  on  registered  and  graded 
stock  kept  within  an  enclosure  and  considered  too  valuable  for 
exhibition  purposes  to  justify  their  mutilation  by  marks  or 
brands.  The  buttons  may  bear  an  animal's  age,  its  number 
in  the  herd,  the  owner's  name  and  address,  or  any  other  infor- 
mation required.  They  are  made  in  two  pieces  as  shown  in 
Fig.  220  and  are  fastened  in  the  animal's  ear  by  means  of  a  pair 
of  pliers  especially  designed  for  the  purpose.  Their  chief  dis- 
advantage lies  in  the  fact  that  the  information  they  bear  is  nec- 


Sheep  and  Hog  Size 


Cattle  Size 


Fig.  220. 


J.C.JONES 


Extra  Cattle  Size 


Fig.  221. 


35 

J.  C.  JONES 
PRESCOTT.  ARIZ. 


1 


Fig.  222. — Ear  tags. 


essarily  of  such  small  characters  that  it  can  not  be  ascertained 
except  at  very  close  range. 

4.  Ear  Loops. — These  are  shown  in  Fig.  221  and  are  fastened 
through  a  slit  in  the  ear.  Their  use  is  confined  chiefly  to  stock 
that  is  kept  in  pasture  or  for  exhibition  purposes.  Like  ear 
buttons  they  may  bear  any  information  desired. 

5.  Ear  Tags. — Ear  tags  are  suspended  from  a  ring  or  loop  in  an 
animal's  ear.  They  are  seldom  used  on  stock  except  w^hen  the 
animals  are  to  be  kept  closely  confined.  Brush,  stiff  weeds,  and 
barbs  along  wire  fences  soon  tear  them  out. 

6.  Dewlaps. — A  dewlap  is  an  incision  in  the  loose  flap  of  skin 
under  a  cow's  neck  as  shown  in  Fig.   209.     This  method  of 


LIVE  STOCK  295 

marking  is  used  on  cattle  that  are  pastured  or  ranged  where 
there  is  Uttle  brush  and  few  snags.  If  these  are  encountered  the 
dewlap  may  be  severely  torn. 

AGES  OF  CATTLE 

Cattle,  unhke  horses,  have  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  this 
physical  characteristic  being  common  to  all  cloven-hoofed  ani- 
mals that  chew  the  cud.  The  teeth  to  be  examined  in  deter- 
mining a  cow's  age  are  the  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw.  They  are 
eight  in  number  and  are  known,  from  center  to  the  sides,  as 
"  pinchers,"  "  middles,"  "  laterals,"  and  "  corners." 

To  Two  Years. — Temporary  pinchers  and  middles  are  present 
at  birth,  or  appear  soon  after,  and  are  followed  by  the  temporary 
laterals  in  from  ten  to  twelve  days  and  by  the  temporary  corners 
in  four  or  five  weeks.  All  are  replaced,  in  the  order  of  their 
appearance,  by  permanent  teeth,  the  pinchers  appearing  at  the 
age  of  from  sixteen  to  twenty  months  and  being  in  place  at 
two  years.  ^ 

Three  Years. — The  middles  appear  at  about  thirty  months 
of  age  and  are  in  place  at  three  years. 

Four  Years. — Laterals  appear  at  the  age  of  three  and  one- 
half  or  four  years  and  are  well  in  place  at  four. 

Five  Years. — Corners  appear  at  from  three  and  one-half  to 
four  and  one-half  years  and  are  in  place  at  five,  when  the  animal 
is  said  to  have  a  "  full  mouth." 

Over  Five  Years. — All  incisors  gradually  grow  thicker  from 
front  to  rear,  draw  away  from  each  other,  and  instead  of  being 
sharp,  as  in  early  age,  have  low,  flat,  triangular  or  circular  crowns. 

1  Where  cattle  range  on  brushy  areas  and  depend  chiefly  on  browse  for 
subsistence,  as  in  the  Southwest,  the  temporary  teeth  are  often  lost 
prematurely  as  the  animals  bite  and  pull  at  the  brush.  As  a  result 
their  age  can  not  always  be  determined  with  a  satisfactory  degree  of 
accuracy. 


MISCELLANEOUS 

AILMENTS   AND   INJURIES 
TREATMENTS 

Antiseptics. — Antiseptic  treatment  of  wounds  is  never  neces- 
sary unless  disinfection  has  been  neglected,  antiseptics  merely 
counteracting  putrefaction  which  never  occurs  except  in  infection. 

Hydrogen  peroxid,  which  acts  only  in  wounds  exposed  to  the 
air,  has  merely  a  mechanical  action  and  is  not  a  generally  satis- 
factory antiseptic.  Equal  parts  of  turpentine  and  camphor, 
well  shaken  together,  will  be  found  about  the  most  effective 
antiseptic  that  the  field  man  can  carry. 

Disinfectants. — These  are  used  to  prevent  the  appearance  of 
infectious  germs  in  open  sores  or  wounds,  any  of  which,  unless 
they  receive  proper  preUminary  treatment,  may  become  infected. 
It  is  therefore  always  a  ^-ise  precaution  to  treat  any  wound, 
whatever  the  degree  of  its  severity,  with  a  disinfectant  as  soon 
as  possible  after  the  injury  is  sustained. 

A  very  effective  disinfectant  may  be  had  by  the  use  of  equal 
parts  of  turpentine  and  camphor,  well  shaken  together,  and 
which  may  be  secured  at  any  drug  store  or  at  country  stores 
where  general  merchandise  is  handled.  Ordinarily,  ten  cents' 
worth  of  each  will  be  sufficient  for  a  year's  use.  In  addition  to 
preventing  infection,  this  mixture  will  also  remove  soreness  and 
at  the  same  time  promote  heaUng.  The  chief  disadvantages  of 
its  use  are  the  burning  sensations  produced  by  its  contact  with 
an  open  wound  and  its  occasional  apparently  poisonous  effect 
on  persons  of  subnormal  or  exceedingly  sensitive  physique. 

Demulcents. — These  are  used  on  external  sores  or  wounds  for 
purposes  similar  in  nature  to  those  for  which  blands  are  used 
in  some  cases  of  internal  poisoning,  viz.,  as  soothing  and  more 
or  less  direct  healing  agents.  Thus,  mentholatum,  a  camphorate 
preparation,  may  be  used  with  very  satisfactory  results  on 
chapped  or  cracked  Ups  and  hands,  on  sunburns,  and  even  on 
bruises  amounting  to  lacerations.  Many  persons  prefer  cam- 
phor ice  for  the  same  uses,  and  still  others  prefer  a  mixture  of 

296 


MISCELLANEOUS  297 

equal  parts  of  bay  rum  and  glycerin,  although  the  glycerin  tends 
to  dry  out  the  skin.  Still  another  demulcent,  rather  crude 
indeed,  but  nevertheless  especially  effective  for  use  on  chapped 
or  cracked  hps,  is  ear  wax,  removed  from  the  ears  and  applied 
to  the  lips  with  the  finger  tips. 

Witch-hazel  is  also  a  good  demulcent. 

Hot  Treatments. — It  is  often  desirable  to  have  some  means  of 
supplying  a  patient  with,  hot  treatments  when  water-bags  or 
bottles  are  not  available.  Such  treatment  may  be  made  pos- 
sible by  the  use  of  stones,  flat-irons,  horseshoes,  or  other  irons 
heated  and  -^Tapped  in  cloths.  The  heated  lid  of  a  Dutch  oven 
is  especially  convenient. 

Another  simple  method  is  to  cut  awa}'  an  old  trouser  leg,  form 
it  into  a  bag,  and  fill  it  with  hot  sand  or  earth. 

AILMENTS 
AILAIENTS  AND   THEIR  TREATMENT 

The  origin  of  practically  all  ailments  to  which  man  is  subject 
may  be  traced  either  du'ectly  or  indirectly  to  disordered  digestive 
or  respiratory  action;  consequently,  as  long  as  these  two  systems 
are  kept  in  proper  order,  the  average  field  man  need  anticipate 
no  serious  physical  disorders. 

Too  much  emphasis  can  not  be  placed  upon  the  necessity  for 
careful  attention  to  the  primary  stages  of  any  ailment,  and,  unless 
this  attention  is  bestowed  when  and  where  it  is  specifically 
needed,  other  and  more  serious  compUcations  will  inevitably 
foUow. 

Biliousness. — This  may  prove  to  be  a  persistent  trouble  in 
the  field,  but  it  constitutes  about  the  onl}^  severe  ailment  a  field 
man  need  expect.  Carelessness  in  combating  it,  however,  in- 
variably results  in  serious  comphcations.  As  a  rule  it  is  due  to 
disordered  or  overworked  digestive  organs  or  to  irregular  or 
excessive  eating.  The  primary  stages  are  indicated  by  a  bad 
taste  in  the  mouth,  dizziness,  headache,  a  coated  tongue,  and 
sometimes  a  generally  tired  or  aching  feeUng  over  the  entire 
body  may  be  present.  Sudden  changes  of  position,  such  as 
arising  quickly  or  suddenly  changing  the  fine  of  vision,  may 
result  in  transient  bhndness,  the  eyeballs  throb  and  ache,  a 
sensation  of  fulness  appears  in  the  head,  and  the  circulation  is 
poor.     These  symptoms  indicate  that  the  digestive  system  must 


298   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

be  given  a  complete  rest  and  allowed  to  regain  its  normal 
condition. 

This  may  be  done  by  the  use  of  some  reliable  purgative  which 
will  clean  the  organs  and  assist  them  in  throwing  off  the  excess 
load  placed  upon  them.  Such  a  purgative  should  contain  a 
minimum  of  calomel,  if  any  at  all,  or  salivation  may  result. 
Calomel  acts  as  a  very  efficient  restorative,  but  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  it  passes  through  the  bowels  without  delay 
and  that  it  is  not  allowed  to  accumulate  there.  Epsom  salt, 
being  more  in  the  nature  of  a  laxative  than  a  purgative,  may 
be  used  after  calomel  has  been  taken,  and  will  in  all  ordinary 
cases  thoroughly  cleanse  the  bowels  of  any  calomel  that  may 
have  remained  inactive  in  them. 

Except  in  very  severe  cases,  two  or  three  days'  use  of  a  pur- 
gative should  prove  sufficient  for  the  restoration  of  normal 
conditions  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

Malaria. — The  average  field  man  is  stationed  high  up  in  the 
mountains  aw^ay  from  low,  poorly  drained  localities  where  the 
malaria  mosquito  (Anopheles)  breeds,  and  is  therefore  less  likely 
to  suffer  from  malaria  than  other  men  who  may  be  required  to 
work  in  mosquito-infected  districts. 

Malaria  Mosquitoes. — The  common  mosquito  may  be  taken 
as  a  fairly  representative  type  of  the  twenty-four  principal  varie- 
ties of  mosquito  found  in  the  United  States.  The  proboscis  of 
the  male  is  too  poorly  developed  to  permit  it  being  thrust  into 
the  skin  of  animals,  and  the  male  therefore  feeds  on  plant  juices. 
The  female  has  a  strong,  needle-shaped  proboscis,  which,  when 
viewed  under  a  strong  magnifying-glass,  resembles  a  coarse, 
round  file.  She  lays  her  eggs  in  boat-shaped  masses,  of  from 
two  hundred  to  four  hundred  eggs,  in  stagnant  fresh  water,  and 
these  hatch  in  about  sixteen  hours,  producing  larvae  known  as 
"  ^^Tigglers."  The  larvae  feed  upon  minute  aquatic  organisms, 
and  under  favorable  conditions,  such  as  very  warm  weather, 
develop  into  pupae  in  about  seven  days. 

The  pupae  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water  for  two  or  three 
days,  and  the  perfect  insect  then  appears,  its  entire  life  cover- 
ing a  period  of  from  ten  days  to  two  wrecks,  unless  cold  weather 
has  forced  it  into  a  dormant  stage,  in  which  it  may  remain  during 
the  winter. 

The  most  effective  method  of  preventing  incubation  and  de- 
velopment of  the  larvae  and  pupae  is  to  pour  kerosene  oil,  gaso- 


MISCELLANEOUS  299 

line,  or  petroleum  into  the  pond  or  pool  where  eggs  have  been 
laid.  The  oil  forms  in  a  thin  film  over  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  prevents  the  immature  insects  from  breathing.  If  no  oils 
are  available  common  salt  may  be  used,  making  the  water  in  the 
pool  from  2%  to  3%  salt. 

The  malaria  mosquito  may  be  distinguished  from  the  common 
mosquito  by  her  spotted  wings,  while  the  yellow-fever  mosquito 
(Stegomya)  has  silvery  stripes  on  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  The 
last-named  mosquito  is  found  only  in  very  warm  localities. 

Transmission  of  Malaria. — The  parasite  which  causes  malaria 
is  an  animalcule  called  Hcemamoeba,  which  infests  and  remains 
in  a  red  corpuscle  until  this  is  completely  filled.  It  then  divides 
into  iimumerable  spores,  w^hich  escape  into  the  plasma  of  the 
blood  and  finally  infest  other  corpuscles.  Paroxysms  of  chills 
and  fever  are  produced  by  the  simultaneous  release  of  great 
numbers  of  these  spores.  One  variety  of  parasite  causes  daily 
paroxysms;  another  produces  the  spores  every  other  day,  the 
paroxj'smal  periods  corresponding  to  the  periods  when  the  spores 
are  liberated;  and  another  variety,  Uberating  the  spores  every 
third  day,  produces  the  paroxj^sms  on  these  days.^ 

Symptoms. — These  may  be  and  frequently  are  preceded  by 
biliousness,  persons  in  this  condition  being  much  more  suscep- 
tible to  malaria  than  those  who  do  not  sufTer  from  disordered 
digestive  organs.  There  is  a  general  feeUng  of  soreness  through- 
out the  body,  and  this  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  muscles  at 
the  small  of  the  back.  The  patient  is  dull  and  hstless,  stretches 
and  yawTis  frequently,  and  is  unable  to  rest  long  in  one  position. 
Fever  may  be  preceded  by  a  distinct  chill  that  causes  the  body 
to  shake  and  the  teeth  to  chatter.  The  chill  lasts  from  thirty 
minutes  to  an  hour,  and  during  the  interval  the  finger-nails  as- 
sume a  bluish  or  purpUsh  tint.  Fever  may  last  from  one  to 
four  hours  and  is  succeeded  by  a  sweating  stage,  and  compara- 
tive comfort  is  then  enjoyed  until  the  next  paroxysm.  In  some 
cases  there  may  be  no  chill  or  cold  stage,  the  patient  merely 
having  a  high  fever  for  several  hours  followed  by  defervescent 
sweating.  In  a  mild  case  no  paroxysm  occurs  the  second  day, 
but  may  be  expected  to  appear  on  the  third  day,  and  if  proper 
precautions  have  been  observed  should  not  be  as  severe  as  the 


1  In  malarial  districts  of  the  South,  malaria  may  be  known  as  "every- 
other-day  shakes,"  "ever>--day  shakes,"  and  "third-day  shakes." 


300   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

first.  If  malignant  malaria  results  in  daily  paroxysms,  a  change 
of  climate  is  advisable. 

Treatment. — If  constipation  is  present  a  good  purgative  is  re- 
quired. After  the  purgative  acts,  three-grain  doses  of  quinine 
should  be  taken  at  intervals  of  two  hours  until  the  ears  ring 
or  nervousness  begins  to  appear.  Such  treatment  should  be 
continued  daily  until  paroxysms  no  longer  occur.  Two-grain 
doses  of  quinine  thi-ee  times  daily  for  two  or  three  days  will 
prevent  an  immediate  return  of  malarial  symptoms,  the  bowels 
during  this  period  being  kept  regular. 

Quinine  can  best  be  taken  in  capsules,  which  may  be  fiUed  at 
any  drug-store. 

Diarrhea. — This  may  result  from  a  change  of  diet  or  water, 
and  has  a  very  weakening  effect  on  the  patient.  It  indicates 
the  presence  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  some  substance  that 
nature  is  trying  to  eject. 

The  most  effective  treatment  is  a  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil, 
which  will  act  as  a  mild  purgative  and  thereby  assist  nature  in 
removing  an  objectionable  load  from  the  digestive  organs. 
Little  or  no  food  should  be  taken  for  a  day  or  more,  and  the 
organs  should  be  given  a  complete  rest. 

Dysentery. — This  follows  diarrhea.  Castor  oil  should  be 
taken  the  same  as  for  diarrhea,  and  a  complete  rest  is  essential 
to  quick  recovery.  After  the  purgative  has  acted,  five  drops 
of  laudanum  and  ten  grains  of  bismuth  should  be  taken  every 
three  or  four  hours.     A  hquid  diet  is  necessary. 

Cholera  Morbus. — This  is  another  disorder  of  the  digestive 
organs  arising  from  the  use  of  foods  that  have  a  more  or  less 
poisonous  effect  on  them.  Cramps  or  convulsions  may  occur, 
and  intense  pain  is  felt  in  the  bowels.  A  very  gentle  emetic 
often  proves  effective,  after  which  warm  or  hot-water  bags  should 
be  apphed  over  the  seat  of  the  pain.  Drinks  of  hot  pepper  or 
ginger  tea  are  also  effective.  If  these  fail  to  give  rehef  ten 
drops  of  laudanum  may  be  used. 

Cramps. — This  is  merely  another  name  for  a  very  slight  attack 
of  cholera  morbus,  the  symptoms  being  similar  and  requiring 
the  same  treatment. 

Headache. — This  is  generally  due  to  indigestion,  and  the 
cause  must  be  removed  before  permanent  rehef  can  be  ob- 
tained. Temporary  relief  may  be  secured  by  drinking  half  a 
pint  of  water  in  which  two  teaspoonfuls  of  powdered  charcoal 


MISCELLANEOUS  301 

have  been  mixed.  Headache  is  usually  one  of  the  first  notice- 
able symptoms  of  biliousness,  and  immediate  precautions  should 
be  taken  to  combat  this  ailment. 

Toothache. — Appty  equal  parts  of  pulverized  alum  and  table 
salt  to  the  affected  tooth.  Fill  hollow  teeth  with  absorbent 
cotton  soaked  in  chloroform.  If  the  nerve  is  exposed  have  the 
tooth  attended  to  by  a  competent  dentist. 

Sore  Lips. — Extremely  dr}',  \sdndy  weather  often  causes  the 
lips  to  crack  or  otherwise  suffer  as  the  result  of  their  unnatur- 
ally dry  condition.  Soreness  may  be  removed,  heahng  pro- 
moted, and  the  skin  softened  by  the  use  of  mentholatum,  cam- 
phor ice,  or  vaseUne.  After  a  few  weeks  of  constant  exposure 
to  wind  and  dry  weather  the  skin  will  become  so  toughened  that 
Uttle  or  no  more  trouble  from  soreness  need  be  anticipated. 

Sore  Throat. — Gargle  with  a  strong  solution  of  salt  water  or 
saturate  a  woolen  cloth  or  sock  with  hot  turpentine  and  grease 
or  lard,  equal  parts,  and  bind  it  about  the  throat  upon  retiring 
for  the  night. 

Sore  Lungs. — Bathe  the  chest,  neck,  and  the  sides  of  the  body 
with  hot  turpentine  and  grease,  equal  parts,  and  rub  vigorously. 
Upon  retiring  for  the  night  pin  a  cloth,  saturated  with  hot  tur- 
pentine and  grease,  to  the  night  clothes  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  will  rest  directly  upon  the  breast. 

Bleeding  at  the  Nose. — Bathe  the  sides  of  the  nose  and  the 
back  of  the  neck  in  cold  water  or  rub  them  with  ice  or  snow. 
Snuffing  cold  water  into  the  nostrils  is  also  effective.  IMedical 
attention  should  be  secured  if  bleeding  is  persistent  and  so  pro- 
fuse that  the  patient  becomes  weak  through  loss  of  blood. 

Felon. — Apply  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  hot  turpentine  and 
pulverized  salt  to  the  felon  in  the  form  of  a  poultice.  Hot  flax- 
seed poultices  are  also  good.  Any  poultice  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  it  becomes  cold  and  another  hot  one  should  be 
apphed. 

Chilblains. — This  affection  is  the  result  of  exposure  to  cold 
and  generally  proves  most  severe  in  the  heels.  Applications  of 
ice  or  cold  water  usually  remove  the  soreness.  The  feet  should 
not  be  bathed  in  warm  water  to  remove  soreness. 

Corns. — These  result  from  the  wearing  of  improperly  fitting 
shoes.  Apply  tincture  of  iodin  several  times  daily.  Cover  corns 
between  the  toes  'with  a  cloth  soaked  in  the  tincture  and  gly- 
cerin.    Another  effective  treatment  is  frequent  appUcations  of 


302   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

acetic  acid,  which  may  be  used  on  either  hard  or  soft  corns. 
Finally,  wear  shoes  that  fit. 

Ingrowing  Toenails. — Like  corns,  these  are  caused  by  ill-fit- 
ting shoes.  They  should  be  scraped  thin  at  the  top  in  order  to 
weaken  them  at  that  point  and  allow  a  buckling-up  process  to 
take  place,  during  which  the  edges  will  be  drawn  upward  out 
of  the  sides  of  the  toe. 

Chapped  Hands. — This  trouble  usually  appears  as  the  result 
of  prolonged  exposure  to  extreme  frost  or  cold  weather  when 
there  is  not  sufficient  moisture  or  elasticity  in  the  skin  to  pre- 
vent it  from  cracking,  as  it  contracts  through  cold.  Bay  rum 
and  glycerin,  equal  parts,  will  prove  temporarily  effective,  but 
can  not  be  recommended  as  preferable  to  mentholatum. 

Laborers  engaged  in  work  that  causes  the  skin  on  the  palms 
and  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  fingers  to  thicken  and  harden 
often  suffer  from  deep  cracks  in  the  skin  surrounding  the  joints. 
This  trouble  is  frequently  remedied  by  means  of  a  cord  tied 
about  the  joint  in  such  a  way  that  it  fits  into  the  crack  and 
against  its  raw  surfaces,  thus  protecting  these  parts  from  injury 
and  allowing  the  crack  to  heal  from  the  bottom  outward. 

INJURIES 

In  the  regular  course  of  their  work  field  men  are  subjected  to 
a  number  of  possible  injuries,  and  unless  they  possess  some 
knowledge  of  the  treatment  required  in  a  specific  case  they  may 
suffer  from  severe  comphcations  later  on.  Often  they  are  re- 
mote from  medical  suppUes  or  attention,  and  in  such  cases  must 
of  course  treat  themselves. 

The  most  important  factor  in  any  treatment  is  presence  of 
mind,  and  in  case  of  an  injury  the  field  man  who  becomes  excited 
only  makes  a  bad  matter  worse. 

Open  wounds  should  be  washed  clean  and  kept  so;  if  dirt 
or  other  foreign  substances  are  allowed  to  enter,  the  wounds 
can  not  heal  properly.  Too  much  attention  can  not  be  given 
to  antispetic  precautions  or  to  sanitary  measures,  and  a  liberal 
use  of  disinfectants  is  always  advisable.  The  most  serious  ef- 
fects of  injuries  are  not  always  due  to  the  injuries  themselves, 
but  in  many  instances  develop  as  the  result  of  improper  or 
careless  preliminary  treatment. 

Cuts. — These  probably  constitute  the  chief  injuries  received 


MISCELLANEOUS  303 

in  the  field,  and  unless  they  are  unusually  deep  or  ragged  no 
comphcations  should  ensue.  The  first  thing  to  determine  is 
whether  or  not  an  artery  has  been  severed,  and  this  will  be 
indicated  by  strong  regular  spurts  of  bright-red  blood.  When 
such  a  course  is  possible  a  tourniquet  should  be  apphed  between 
the  wound  and  the  heart,  and  the  injured  part  should  be  ele- 
vated above  the  latter.  Soot,  cobwebs,  or  mud  should  never 
be  bound  on  a  cut;  it  should  be  washed  with  from  three  to 
five  drops  of  carboUc  acid  in  a  pint  of  water. 

Darker  blood,  flowing  in  a  slow,  steady  stream,  indicates  a 
severed  vein,  and  such  a  wound  seldom  proves  serious.  Bleed- 
ing may  be  stopped  by  binding  fresh  flour  to  the  wound.  In 
severe  cases  a  tourniquet  may  be  used,  being  appUed  at  a  point 
which  brings  the  wound  between  it  and  the  heart. 

Blood  which  merely  oozes  out  in  a  few  large  drops  or  a  num- 
ber of  very  small  ones  indicates  injured  capillaries,  and  such  a 
wound  requires  no  attention  other  than  possibly  that  of  the 
use  of  a  disinfectant. 

Hydrogen  peroxid  applied  to  a  wound  wiU  "  boil  "  if  the 
wound  is  festering  or  if  other  unnatm-al  conditions  exist.  Sore- 
ness may  be  removed  by  frequent  apphcation  of  turpentine  and 
camphor  in  equal  parts.  This  will  produce  a  severe  burning 
sensation  if  applied  to  an  open  cut,  and  in  some  instances  may 
even  have  a  shghtly  poisonous  effect  on  the  patient,  but  as  a 
general  rule  it  is  as  effective  a  remedy  as  can  be  used. 

Gunshot  Wounds. — Ordinarily,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the 
edges  of  the  wounds  are  ragged  or  torn,  these  are  more  difficult 
to  treat  than  other  lacerations.  Care  must  be  taken  to  wash 
them  thoroughly  and  to  prevent  infection  as  they  heal.  If  very 
serious,  they  should  be  treated  by  a  competent  physician. 

Burns. — Wash  the  wounds,  then  apply  castor  oil,  taking  care 
to  see  that  no  blisters  are  broken.  Bandages  should  not  be  used, 
but  if  they  are  found  to  be  absolutely  necessary  they  should  be 
light  and  open  enough  to  allow  the  escape  of  natural  heat  from 
beneath  them.  Air  may  be  kept  from  the  wounds  by  appHca- 
tions  of  castor  oil  or  vaseline.  Cotton  saturated  with  vinegar 
and  laid  on  the  wounds  is  said  to  prevent  scars. 

Bruises. — These  should  be  bathed  for  an  hour  or  two,  accord- 
ing to  their  severity,  in  warm  water.  Allow  the  temperature 
of  the  water  to  decrease  gradually,  and  finally  bathe  with  cold 
water.     Raw  beef  bound  to  the  wound  will  remove  discolora- 


304   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

tion,  or  a  cloth  soaked  in  very  hot  water,  wrung  dry,  and  applied 
to  the  wound  will  serve  the  purpose  as  well. 

Fractures. — Provide  complete  rest  and  see  that  the  injured 
part  is  protected  from  unnecessary  movement.  Bathe  the  af- 
fected part  in  cold  water  to  keep  down  fever,  and  secure  expert 
medical  attention  at  once.  If  a  spUntered  bone  is  forced  through 
the  skin,  no  attempt  should  be  made  by  an  inexperienced  person 
to  replace  it  unless  expert  attention  is  absolutely  out  of  the 
question.  In  such  a  case  force  the  sphntered  end  backward  and 
if  possible  fit  it  into  its  natural  position,  fit  the  shattered  ends 
together  as  well  as  circumstances  will  permit,  and  work  the 
limb  into  a  natural  position  and  hold  it  there  by  means  of  splints. 
These  may  be  made  from  barrel  staves  or  pieces  of  wooden 
boxes,  or  may  be  hewn  from  green  timber.  See  that  they  are 
perfectly  smooth  and  that  they  fit  the  Umb  closely.  Do  not 
apply  directly  to  the  flesh,  but  bandage  the  latter  hghtly,  then 
apply  the  splints  and  later  make  them  secure  with  other  band- 
ages. The  main  object  is  to  hold  the  fractured  ends  of  the 
bone  together  in  one  position  till  they  knit. 

Dislocations. — Pull  or  otherwise  force  the  joint  into  its  nat- 
ural position  and  then  bathe  the  parts  surrounding  it  with  warm 
water  and  treat  as  a  bruise.  In  some  instances  cold  water  may 
give  more  rehef  than  warm  water.  Give  the  joint  a  complete 
rest  and  do  not  use  it  till  aU  soreness  has  disappeared. 

Sprains. — These  are  caused  by  excessive  strain  on  the  tendons. 
Allow  a  good  rest  of  the  injured  parts  and  bathe  in  turpentine 
and  camphor,  equal  parts.  Do  not  use  the  member  till  soreness 
has  disappeared. 

Faint. — This  may  result  from  biliousness,  fright,  or  sudden 
surprise,  extreme  mental  or  physical  pain,  or  from  a  disordered 
circulatory  system  due  to  improper  nerve  control.  The  direct 
cause  is  lack  of  blood  in  the  brain. 

Lay  the  patient  flat  on  his  back  wdth  the  hmbs  extended  and 
the  head  lower  than  the  body,  loosen  the  clothing  about  the 
throat  and  waist,  and  dash  cold  water  in  the  face.  Stimulate 
with  a  tablespoonful  of  whiskey  or  with  strong  smeUing  salts 
held  close  to  the  nose.  External  stimulation  may  be  secured 
by  rubbing  the  body  with  alcohol  or  by  chafing  the  hands  and 
arms.  Upon  revival  remove  the  patient  to  quiet  quarters  and 
aUow  a  complete  rest. 

If  due  to  bihousness  remove  the  cause. 


MISCELLANEOUS  .  305 

Shock. — This  is  similar  to  faint  and  should  be  given  the 
same  treatment. 

Freezing. — There  is  little  danger  of  serious  freezing  as  long 
as  a  sensation  of  extreme  cold  is  felt;  freezing  occurs  at  the 
time  these  sensations  cease  and  is  responsible  for  their  disap- 
pearance. Frozen  parts  may  be  distinguished  by  their  dead- 
white  appearance  and  insensibility. 

The  first  symptom  is  a  feeling  of  extreme  cold,  which  soon 
disappears  and  leads  the  patient  to  beheve  that  warmth  is 
returning;  drowsiness  soon  appears  and  the  patient  has  an  un- 
controllable desire  for  sleep.  It  is  very  necessary,  however,  to 
see  that  he  is  not  allowed  to  sleep,  as  this  invariably  results  fa- 
tally. He  should  be  forced  to  exercise,  and  to  adopt  such  other 
methods  as  will  serve  to  stimulate  circulation  of  the  blood.  If  he 
has  become  so  numb  that  physical  action  is  impossible  he  should 
be  taken  into  a  snowbank  or  other  shelter  where  the  wind  can 
not  strike  him  and  should  then  be  rubbed  vigorously  with  ice 
or  snow  or  bathed  in  the  coldest  water  obtainable.  He  should 
never  be  taken  into  a  warm  room  until  all  frost  has  been  removed 
and  he  no  longer  feels  numb. 

If  amputation  becomes  necessary  it  should  be  done  by  a 
surgeon  who  is  thoroughly  familiar  wdth  the  prevention  of 
blood-poisoning. 

Sunstroke. — Remove  the  patient  to  the  shade  and  lay  him 
flat  on  his  back,  dash  cold  water  in  his  face,  and  see  that  the 
clothing  is  loosened.  If  recovery  does  not  occur  in  from  forty- 
five  minutes  to  an  hour,  salt  should  be  added  to  the  water  until 
a  strong  solution  is  secured.  Recovery  is  seldom  so  complete 
that  the  patient  will  be  able  to  withstand  exposure  to  extreme 
heat  again  mthout  a  recurrence  of  the  stroke. 

Drowning. — Lay  the  patient  face  dowTiward  over  a  log  or  a 
roll  of  clothing  in  such  a  way  that  the  pressure  of  the  support 
is  against  his  stomach.  Place  one  or  both  fore-arms  beneath 
his  forehead  to  keep  this  from  the  ground,  then  press  down 
vigorously  on  his  back,  afterward  turning  him  over  and  pressing 
on  his  chest.  Alternate  pressing  of  the  back  and  chest  should 
be  continued  until  all  the  water  has  been  removed  from  the 
lungs. 

If  this  treatment  fails  to  remove  the  water,  stand  astride  the 
patient's  body  as  he  hes  face  do\\-nward,  seize  him  at  either 
side  just  below  the  ribs,  and  give  the  body  a  sudden  jerk  upward. 


306   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

taking  care  to  see  that  the  operation  does  not  result  in  bruising 
the  face  against  the  ground.  In  event  this  also  fails  to  remove 
the  water  from  the  lungs,  the  attendant,  if  he  is  strong  enough, 
should  hoist  the  patient  to  his  back,  the  patient's  head  down 
and  the  crook  of  his  knees  resting  over  the  attendant's  shoulders, 
while  the  attendant  holds  the  patient  there  by  a  firm  gi'asp  of 
the  ankles.  In  this  position  the  patient  may  be  carried  about 
at  a  rough,  jolting  walk  or  run  for  several  minutes,  dui'ing  which 
time  most  of  the  water  will  be  shaken  from  his  lungs. 

If  natural  respiration  does  not  reappear  soon  after  the  water 
has  been  removed  from  the  lungs,  the  patient  should  be  laid 
flat  on  his  back,  and  the  attendant  should  then  hold  shut  the  nos- 


Scorpion. 


Tarantula. 


trils  while  he  forces  his  own  breath  into  the  lungs  of  the  patient, 
removing  it  by  pressure  on  the  chest.  This  should  be  continued 
until  respiration  begins  again  in  a  normal  manner,  care  being 
taken,  of  course,  not  to  interrupt  the  first  faint  breaths  that  occur. 

The  patient  should  be  removed  to  quiet  quarters  and  given  a 
complete  rest  as  soon  as  natural  respiration  has  been  secured. 

Lightning  Stroke. — This  should  be  treated  the  same  as  sun- 
stroke. 


MISCELLANEOUS  307 

Tarantula,  Centiped  and  Scorpion  Wounds. — These  should  be 
bathed  in  turpentine  for  about  twenty  minutes  and  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  all  parts  of  the  wounds  are  reached. 

Contrary  to  a  general  belief  that  such  wounds  are  invariably 
fatal  they  will  seldom  prove  more  than  temporarily  serious 
unless  the  patient  is  in  a  generally  run-down  physical  condition. 

Catfish  Wounds. — These  are  inflicted  by  means  of  the  spines 
appearing  at  the  gills  and  at  the  front  of  the  dorsal  fin  of  the 
catfish.  They  frequently  result  in  severe  soreness,  but  no  per- 
manent ill  effects  should  follow  if  the  w^ounds  are  thoroughly 
bathed  in  turpentine  immediately  after  they  are  inflicted. 

Dog  Bites. — Expert  medical  attention  should  be  secured  im- 
mediately if  there  is  reason  to  beheve  that  the  bite  has  been 
inflicted  by  an  animal  suffering  from  hydrophobia.  ^  The  animal's 
brain  should  be  secured  in  such  cases  if  this  is  possible  and 
should  be  examined  by  competent  authority  to  ascertain  whether 
or  not  indications  of  hydrophobia  are  present.  In  any  case  the 
wound  should  be  well  opened  and  filled  w^ith  turpentine. 

Snake  Bites. — The  average  field  man,  in  the  course  of  his 
regular  duties,  encounters  so  few  poisonous  snakes  that  he  gives 
httle  or  no  attention  to  the  study  of  means  to  counteract  the 
poison.  It  is  well,  however,  for  him  to  be  prepared  for  emer- 
gencies and  to  know  what  should  be  done  in  case  he  is  bitten 
by  a  poisonous  snake. 

The  poison  is  primarily  a  violent  blood  poison  rather  than  a 
stomach  poison,  although  its  presence  in  the  circulatory  system 
w^ll  cause  severe  illness  and  nausea.  Thick,  laborious  breathing 
and  physical  exhaustion  are  prominent  symptoms,  nausea  is 
present  but  vomiting  is  difficult,  dizziness  occurs  and  partial 
muscular  paralysis  attends  the  advanced  stages.  Severe  internal 
pains  produce  spasms  and  a  violent  sw^eUing  appears  about  the 
wound. 

^  The  following  treatment  is  said  to  counteract  hydrophobia  poison- 
ing, but  since  there  has  been  no  opportiuiity  to  verify  its  actual  work- 
ings it  is  not  offered  as  strictly  infalUble:  Bruise  up  one  and  one-half 
ounces  of  green  Elecampane  root,  a  composite  plant  allied  to  the  aster, 
and  put  it  in  a  pint  of  sweet  milk.  If  the  green  root  is  not  available 
use  the  dried  root,  which  can  be  secured  at  most  drug  stores.  Boil 
the  milk  dowTi  to  one-half  pint,  let  it  cool  then  drink  it.  Repeat  the 
dose  in  ten  or  twelve  hours  but  use  two  ounces  of  the  root.  Take  a 
third  two-ounce  dose  twelve  hours  later.  Eat  nothing  for  a  period  of 
from  six  to  eight  hours  after  each  dose. 


308   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Action  should  be  immediate.  Locate  the  wound  and  make 
an  incision  in  it  to  allow  free  bleeding.  If  the  teeth  are  sound 
and  the  lips  free  from  cracks  or  other  lacerations  and  the  wound 
can  be  so  reached  it  should  be  sucked  vigorously.  A  strong 
emetic,  such  as  mustard  water  or  warm  salt  water,  should  be 
taken  immediately  afterward  in  order  to  throw  off  any  poison 
that  may  have  entered  the  stomach  through  the  mouth  and 
throat. 

Instances  have  been  kno^n  where  chewing  and  swallowing 
tobacco  and  its  juice  have  counteracted  the  effects  of  the  poison 
injected  through  the  wound.  Another  method  is  to  soak  the 
wound  in  turpentine  or  in  a  strong  solution  of  kerosene  oil  and 
salt.  Moderate  drafts  of  whiskey  may  prove  effective,  but  in 
the  majority  of  cases  which  prove  fatal,  death  is  doubtless  due 
more  to  the  excessive  amounts  of  whiskey  taken  than  to  the 
effects  of  the  poison  itself. 

The  most  effective  remedy  is  an  injection  of  permanganate 
of  potash,  one  part  of  it  being  used  with  one  hundred  parts  of 
water.  It  comes  in  the  shape  of  small  grains,  similar  in  appear- 
ance to  gunpowder,  and  can  be  secured  at  any  drug  store.  ^ 

1  The  following  oflBcial  memorandum,  issued  to  Forest  oflBcers  in 
District  3,  on  September  13,  1915,  may  prove  of  interest:  "Snake 
bites  are  most  often  received  on  the  legs,  below  the  knees,  and  less 
frequently  on  the  hands  or  arms.  Wherever  the  bite  may  be  located, 
first-aid  treatment  must  be  given  quickly  to  be  effective.  In  the  case 
of  a  bite  on  the  foot  or  leg  below  the  knee,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
expose  the  limb  instantly  and  bandage  or  Ugature  it  just  above  the 
knee  so  tightlj^  as  to  at  once  stop  the  flow  of  blood  and  prevent  as 
far  as  possible  the  distribution  of  the  poison  to  other  parts  of  the  body. 
In  the  case  of  a  bite  on  the  hand  or  forearm,  place  the  bandage  just 
above  the  elbow.  Anything  that  can  be  tied,  such  as  a  rope,  strap, 
handkerchief,  will  answer.  A  pad  of  cloth  placed  xmder  the  knee  will 
help  to  make  the  bandaging  more  effective.  The  second  step  is  to  sink 
the  point  of  a  clean,  sharp  knife  to  the  bottom  of  each  wound  made  by 
the  snake's  fangs,  which  usually  penetrate  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch, 
and  to  sUt  the  flesh  parallel  with  the  limb,  for  one-third  to  half  an 
inch;  avoid  cutting  across  or  around  the  Umb,  which  is  more  likely  to 
sever  a  blood  v&ssel.  Pinch  and  rub  the  flesh  about  the  wound  and  suck 
the  blood  from  it  for  several  minutes,  or  as  long  as  a  free  flow  of  blood 
continues.  This  will  remove  much  of  the  venom.  The  blood  and 
poison  should  be  spit  out  quickly  from  time  to  time.  (No  one  having 
abrasions,  open  sores,  or  cuts  on  the  lips  or  in  the  mouth  should  suck 
a  wound,  as  these  may  take  up  the  poison.)  The  third  step  is  to 
thoroughly  sterilize  the  wound  by  an  application  of  permanganate  of 
potash.     Spread  the  woimd  open  and  pour  the  crystals  into  the  cut 


MISCELLAXEOUS  309 

It  is  true  that  so  many  bites  may  be  inflicted  that  death  may 
be  almost  instantaneous,  but  this  is  a  verj"  rare  occurrence. 

Poisoning. — This  may  occur  as  a  result  of  impure  foodstuffs 
being  taken  into  the  stomach,  may  result  from  mistakes  made 
in  compounding  or  administering  drugs  or  medicines,  or  it  may 
result  from  a  deliberate  attempt  at  self-destruction.  Action  in 
any  case  should  be  prompt  and  unattended  by  excitement  or 
confusion,  and  should  be  persistent  imtil  the  poison  has  been 
ejected  or  neutraUzed  and  the  patient  made  as  comfortable  as 
conditions  will  permit. 

In  nearly  every  case  it  is  advisable  to  administer  an  emetic 
as  soon  as  the  first  indication  of  poisoning  appears.  While  the 
stomach  is  being  emptied,  an  antidote  may  be  prepared,  and 
action  will  thus  be  hastened  and  little  or  no  time  lost. 

Emetics. — The  most  effective  emetic  that  can  be  used  con- 
sists of  Vio-grain  of  apomorphin  hydrochlorid  dissolved  in  a 
sjTingeful  of  water,  the  patient  being  given  Hberal  quantities  of 
water  afterward  for  purposes  of  dilution.  Another  emetic  con- 
sists of  strong,  warm,  salt  water,  while  another  may  be  made 
of  strong  mustard  water.  If  none  of  these  is  available  vomit- 
ing may  be  induced  by  thrusting  the  finger  far  do-^ii  in  the 
patient's  throat. 

Antidotes. — These  are  given  as  means  of  neutrahzing  poisons 
to  an  extent  that  renders  them  ineffective.  A  general  rule  is 
to  give  an  acid  antidote  for  alkaline  poisoning  and  an  alkaline 
antidote  for  acid  poisoning. 

Blands. — Blands  are  of  a  demulcent  or  soothing  nature,  and 
should  be  given  in  all  cases  where  the  nature  of  a  poison  has 


freely.  An  application  of  iodin  in  the  form  of  a  strong  tincture  or 
crystals  will  answer,  if  the  permanganate  is  not  available.  Keep  the 
hmb  bandaged  for  at  least  an  hoiu*  after  the  blood  has  been  thoroughly 
sucked  from  the  wound.  Then  the  bandage  can  be  slackened  a  little 
pro^^ded  the  patient  shows  but  httle  effect  (depression),  from  the 
poison.  If  the  patient  is  greatly  affected,  do  not  loosen  the  bandage. 
"When  snake  bites  are  received  in  a  part  of  the  body  where  a  bandage 
can  not  be  apphed  effectively,  opening  the  wound,  sucking  out  the 
blood  and  poison,  and  sterihzing  the  womid  is  all  that  can  be  done 
before  taking  the  patient  to  a  doctor,  which  in  all  cases  should,  if 
possible,  be  done  promptly.  A  large  dose  of  whiskey,  brandy,  diluted 
alcohol,  or  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  should  be  given  at  once  and 
repeated  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  keep  up  the  patient's  strength.  Of 
course,  the  ser\-ices  of  a  physician  should  be  secured  as  soon  as  possible. ' ' 


310 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


been  such  as  to  corrode  or  burn  the  membranes  attacked.     Sweet 
milk,  raw  eggs,  and  olive  oil  are  about  the  most  effective. 

Stimulants. — In  event  a  poison  leaves  the  patient  physically 
exhausted  or  mentally  depressed  these  conditions  may  be  over- 
come by  administering  liberal  drinks  of  strong  tea  or  coffee,  and 
if  these  are  not  available  then  whiskey  or  brandy  may  be  used 
instead.  The  first  two,  however,  are  preferable  in  most  cases. 
If  the  effect  of  the  poison  causes  nervousness,  extreme  sensitive- 
ness, or  excitabiUty,  then,  of  course,  a  stimulant  should  not 
be  used. 

POISONS 

These  occur  in  such  a  multitude  of  forms  that  no  attempt 
whatever  will  be  made  here  to  classify  them  in  their  various 
orders.  Only  such  poisons  as  the  field  man  may  possibly  en- 
counter during  his  field  work  can  be  considered  and  these  are 
arranged  alphabetically  for  quicker  reference. 


Poisons  Symptoms 

Aconite Numbness     in     lips     and 

tongue ;  tingling  sensa- 
tion in  limbs. 

Alcohol Unconsciousness ;  deep  res- 
piration; snoring;  pale- 
ness; weak  heart-action. 

Ammonium  Severe   pains  in   stomach 

hydroxid ....  and  bowels ;  stained  Ups 

and  mouth;  vomiting. 

Ammonia (See  above.) 

Arsenic Vomiting ;  unconscious- 
ness; pain  in  mouth, 
stomach  and  bowels ; 
exhaustion. 

Atropia Drowsiness ;    xmconscious- 

ness ;  deep  breathing ; 
flushed  face  and  dilated 
pupils. 


Belladonna . 


Bromin . 


Staggering;  deUrium;  face 
flushed;  dry  mouth  and 
throat;  bright,  dilated 
pupils. 

Abdominal  pains;  vomit- 
ing; diarrhea;  impaired 
heart-action  and  res- 
piration ;  local  muscular 
spasms. 


Treatment 
Emetic:    complete   rest; 

stimulant  if  necessary ; 

warmth. 
Emetic;  large  quantity  of 

sweet   milk   or  strong 

coffee. 
No     emetic     necessary; 

vinegar  or  lemon  juice; 

bland ;     stimulant     if 

necessary ;     rest     and 

quiet. 
Emetic;    raw   eggs   well 

beaten;    stimulant; 

rest. 

Emetic;  stimulants ;  keep 
the  patient  aroused, 
and,  if  necessary,  pro- 
duce artificial  respira- 
tion. 

Emetic;  strong  coffee  or 
tea;  keep  Umbs  warm; 
allow  plenty  of  rest  for 
complete  recovery. 

Emetic;  stimulant; 
warmth. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


311 


Poisons 
Camphor . 


Cantharides. 


Carbolic  acid. 


Charcoal  fumes 


Chloral. 


Chlorin 

Chloroform .... 


Chromic  acid. 


Cicuta . 


Cocaine . 


Symptoms 

Burning  sensation  in  all 
parts  attacked ;  dizzi- 
ness ;  headache :  impaired 
vision ;  convulsions ;  ir- 
regular pulse ;  nausea. 

Extemallj%  bUsters;  in- 
ternally, same;  nausea; 
vomiting. 


Pains  in  mouth,  stomach, 
and  bowels;  Mps  and 
mouth  burned  white ; 
tongue  swollen;  spasms 
and  imconsciousness. 

Flushed  face;  short  and 
rapid  respiration ;  sur- 
face of  body  cold;  in 
sUght  attack  similar  to 
intoxication. 

Similar  to  intoxication ; 
nausea ;  vomiting ;  irreg- 
ular pulse  and  respira- 
tion; face  flushed;  ex- 
tremities cold;  convul- 
sions may  occur. 

Inhaled:  suffocation, 
coughing,  pains  in  chest. 

First  stage,  warm  feeling 
and  tingling  sensations, 
followed  by  uncon- 
sciousness, relaxation 
and  vomiting. 


Muscular  cramps;  vomit- 
ing; diarrhea;  slow  res- 
piration; collapse. 

Weakness;  partial  paraly- 
sis ;  dilated  pupils ;  weak- 
ened respiration,  which, 
in  a  fatal  case,  causes 
the  death. 

Dry,  burning  throat  and 
nose ;  burning  in 
stomach;  quick  pulse  at 
first,  but  becomes  slow; 
cold  extremities ;  dilated 
pupils. 


Treatment 
Emetic;    castor    oil    or 
alcohol;  rest. 


Emetic;  no  oils  should 
be  given;  give  drinks 
of  gruel,  water  and 
meal  or  flour  or  other 
mucilaginous  drinks. 

Sweet  milk,  melted  but- 
ter or  lard,  or  alcohol; 
bland ;  stimulant  if 
necessary;  rest. 

Provide  plenty  of  fresh 
air;  artificial  respira- 
tion if  necessary. 


Emetic  (strong) ;  alka- 
Une  antidote ;  stimu- 
lant; keep  the  patient 
aroused  and  do  not 
allow  sleep ;  produce 
artificial  respiration. 

Plenty  of  fresh  air ;  to  re- 
Ueve  pain  inhale  ether. 

Artificial  respiration ; 
raise  feet  above  head 
to  force  blood  to  brain ; 
if  taken  into  stomach 
give  an  emetic,  then 
oUve  oil  and  stimulant; 
keep  warm. 

Emetic;  large  quantities 
of  sweet  milk. 

Emetic;  stimulant;  pre- 
vent cessation  of  res-, 
piration;  force  patient 
to  breathe. 

Emetic;  Uberal  doses  of 
powdered  charcoal. 


312   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Poisons 

Symptoms 

Copper 

.     Bitter    taste    in    mouth; 

nausea;  vomiting;  cohc; 

thirst. 

Corrosive 

Pain  in  mouth;  vomiting; 

sublimate . . . 

piu-ging;      abdominal 

pains;  con\niLsions. 

Cyanid  of 

Drowsiness ;    insenslbiUty ; 

potassium.  . 

flushed     face;      dilated 

pupils;  deep  breathing. 

Digitalis 

.     Impaired     vision;     head- 

ache ;    thirst ;    irritation 

in  stomach;  pulse  slow 

but     strong ;     impaired 

heart-action. 

Ether 

See  Chloroform. 

Fly  poisons .  .  . 

.     These  are  generally  arsenic; 

symptoms  are  similar  to 

those  in  arsenic  poison- 

mg. 
Formaldehyd. . .      See  Chloral. 
Fowler's 

solution See  Arsenic. 

Hartshorn See  Ammonia. 

Hellebore Burning       sensation       in 

stomach     and     bowels ; 
slow,  feeble  pulse;  drow- 
siness; dizziness;  dilated 
pupils;  nausea. 
Hydrates  or  Hy-     Soapy  taste;  burning  sen- 
droxidsof  Am-         sation  in  mouth,  throat, 
monium  (Am-         and      stomach;      Ught, 
monia  or  Hart-         accelerated     breathing ; 
shorn)    Potas-         slow  pulse;  clammy  skin, 
siimi    Sodium, 
lodin Abdominal     pains;     diar- 
rhea;    vomiting;     local 
muscular    spasms ;    im- 
paired heart-action  and 
respiration. 
Laudanum Drowsiness ;    unconscious- 
ness;   flushed    face;    di- 
lated      pupils ;         deep 
breathing;  snoring. 

Lead  salts Pains  in  aUmentary  canal ; 

spasms. 

Lye Shriveled  lips  and  tongue; 

vomiting ;    severe   pains 
in  alimentary  canal. 


Treatment 

Emetic;  flour  paste,  raw 

eggs,  or  sweet  milk. 

Emetic;  raw  eggs,  sweet 
milk;  stimulant. 

Emetic;  keep  patient 
awake ;  produce  arti- 
ficial respiration. 

Emetic;  stimulant;  rest; 
warmth. 


Emetic;  raw  eggs  w^ell 
beaten  ;  stimulant ; 
rest. 


Emetic;  place  patient 
flat  on  his  back  with 
the  feet  higher  than 
the  head;  give  a 
stimulant. 

Emetic;  vinegar,  lemon 
or  Ume  juice;  if  anti- 
dote is  not  available, 
give  a  stimulant. 


Emetic;  boiled  rice,  flour 
or  meal;  remove  yel- 
low stains  from  skin 
with  ammonia. 

Emetic;  prevent  sleep 
and  compel  patient  to 
move  about ;  stimulant; 
no  rest  imtil  effects 
wear  off. 

Emetic;  raw  tomatoes, 
lemons,  oranges ;  stimu- 
lant. 

Noemetic  necessary ;  raw 
tomatoes,  lemons,  or 
oranges ;  stimulants ; 
rest. 


MISCELL.\NEOUS 


313 


Poisons  Symptoms 

Mercm'y  salts .  .  Vomiting;  pains  in  the 
alimentar J"  canal ;  insen- 
sibility. 

ISIorpliin Similar  to  laudanum,  ex- 
cept pupils  are  con- 
tracted. 

ISIuriatic  acid. . .  Stained  and  shriveled 
Ups  and  mouth;  pains 
in  aUmentary  canal; 
vomiting. 

IMushrooms ....  Spasms  of  stomach  and 
bowels ;  interrupted 

heart  action ;  excessive 
lachrymal  secretions ; 
contracted  pupils. 

Nicotin Extreme  nausea ;  vomit- 
ing ;  dizziness ;  rapid 
pulse  and  respiration ; 
cold  extremities. 

Nitric  acid See  Carbohc  acid. 

Nitroglycerin. . .  Inhaled :  a  severe  "powder 
headache";  taken  in- 
ternally :  colic,  vomit- 
ing, dizziness,  and  great 
weakness. 

Nux  vomica. . .  .  Stiffness ;  spasmodic  ac- 
tion of  muscles;  con- 
vulsions. 

Opium See  ]Morphin. 

Oxalic  acid Intense  pain  in  aUmen- 
tary canal ;  vomiting ; 
stained  or  bmTied  Ups 
and  mouth. 

Paregoric See  Morphin. 

Paris  green Pain  in  alimentary  canal ; 

con\'ulsions ;  vomiting  • 
pvu-ging. 

Phosphorus ....  Pain  in  aUmentary  canal ; 
con\'Txlsions ;  vomiting ; 
purging. 

Picric  acid Fulness  in  head ;    roaring 

in  ears;  dullness;  im 
paired  vision;  difficulty 
in  swaUowing ;  pulse 
weak. 

Poison  Hemlock     See  Cicuta. 

Potash Pain  in  aUmentary  canal ; 

vomiting ;  con\'ulsions ; 
burned  Ups  and  mouth. 


Treatment 
Emetic;     bland;     stimu- 
lants. 

Treat   as  for  laudanum. 


Emetic;  sweet  milk,  raw 
eggs,  Ume,  plaster, 
magnesia,  chalk;  stim- 
ulant. 

Emetic;  purgative. 


Emetic;    stimulant; 
warmth. 


Emetic;  strong  coffee. 


Emetic;    strong    purga- 
tive; complete  rest. 


Emetic ;  chalk,  Ume,  mag- 
nesia, or  plaster ;  bland ; 
stimulant. 


Emetic;  raw  eggs,  sweet 
milk, castor-oil;  bland; 
stimulant. 

Emetic ;  chalk,  Ume, 
plaster,  magnesia; 
bland;  stimulant. 

Sweet  milk,  melted  but- 
ter or  lard,  or  alcohol; 
bland ;  stimulant ;  pur- 
gative wiU  only  further 
irritate  bowels. 

No  emetic  necessary- ; 
give  raw  tomatoes, 
\inegar,  or  lemons ; 
bland;  stimulant. 


314 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Poisons 
Potassium 
chlorate . 

Potassium 
nitrate.  . 


Prussic  acid 
(Potassium 
cyanid)..  .  . 


Ptomaine . 


Rat  poisons . .  , 
Salicylic  acid . 
Silver  nitrate. . 


Strychnin 

Sulphuric  acid. 


Tartar  emetic , 
Wood  alcohol. 

Zinc  chlorid . . . 


Symptoms 

Pain  in  alimentary  canal; 
vomiting;  possibly  diar- 
rhea may  occur. 

Pain  in  alimentary  canal; 
vomiting ;  purging ;  local 
muscular  spasms ;  im- 
paired heart-action  and 
respiration. 

Palpitation  of  the  heart; 
cold  perspiration;  dilat- 
ed pupils ;  irregular  res- 
piration; convulsions. 


Severe  pain  in  the  ali- 
mentary canal;  vomit- 
ing ;  purging ;  convul- 
sions; cramps;  extreme 
nausea. 

See  Fly  Poisons. 

See  Picric  Acid. 

Pains  in  throat  and 
stomach ;  vomiting ;  ver- 
tigo; spasms. 

See  Nux  Vomica. 

Pain  in  aUmentary  canal; 
stained  or  bxu-ned  mouth 
and  Ups;  vomiting. 

Pain  in  aUmentary  canal; 
vomiting;  purging. 

Nausea;  headache;  delir- 
ium ;  profuse  prespira- 
tion;  dilated  pupils. 

Excessive  secretions  of 
saUva;  diflQculty  in 
swallowing ;  vomiting ; 
coUapse. 


Treatment 
Emetic;  stimulant;  rest. 


Emetic;  stimulant;  rest; 
warmth. 


If  large  amount  has  been 
taken  no  antidote  will 
be  effective;  in  very 
small  amount  give 
emetic,  and  produce 
artificial  respiration. 

Emetic;  purgative; 
powdered  charcoal  or 
wood  ashes  in  tea- 
spoon doses ;  stimu- 
lant if  necessary. 


Emetic;  raw  eggs,  sweet 
milk;  rest. 


Emetic ;  soda,  chalk, 
plaster ,  lime ,  magnesia ; 
bland;  stimulant. 

Milk  or  raw  eggs;  bland; 
stimulant. 

Emetic;  stimulant;  rest. 


Emetic;  raw  eggs,  milk, 
or  strong  green  tea; 
rest. 


Poisonous  Plants. — It  is  impossible  to  classify  these  plants 
definitely  because  some  of  them  may  poison  some  persons  and 
have  no  perceptible  poisonous  effect  on  others,  some  that  are 
harmless  to  animals  are  very  poisonous  to  humans  and  some 
that  are  poisonous  in  the  raw  state  are  harmless  when  cooked. 

Among  the  poisonous  plants  of  the  United  States  the  most 
prominent  are  water  hemlock,  poison  hemlock,  henbane,  black 
nightshade,  belladonna,  lobeUa,  digitalis,  aconit,  hellebore,  poke- 
weed  and  ivy. 

The  last  is  often  confused  with  the  Virginia  creeper  or  five- 


MISCELLANEOUS  315 

leafed  ivy,  which  may  also  prove  poisonous  to  some  people,  but 
may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  having  only  three  leaves  instead 
of  five.  It  proves  poisonous  to  most  persons  who  come  in  con- 
tact with  it  and  to  many  who  get  only  in  close  proximity  to  it. 
The  affection  known  as  "  ivy  poisoning  "  appears  in  the  form 
of  numerous  bhsters,  and  extreme  irritation  of  the  infected  parts 
ensues.  On  the  hands  it  usually  appears  first  between  and  at 
the  base  of  the  fingers,  while  on  the  feet  it  first  appears  between 
the  toes. 

An  effective  remedy  is  an  apphcation  once  or  twice  daily  of 
buttermilk,  lemon-juice,  vinegar,  or  raw  tomato.  Sulphuric 
ether  is  also  good,  but  must  be  used  during  the  primary  stages 
to  be  effective,  and  if  not  used  till  secondary  inflammation  ap- 
pears will  be  of  little  use.  Its  action  is  to  take  into  solution  the 
volatile  oil  and  to  so  spread  it  as  to  permit  rapid  oxidation  and 
consequent  weakening  of  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  plant. 

REPTILES 

The  Homed  Toad. — This  is  not  really  a  toad,  but  is  a  large 
lizard  with  a  wide,  flat  body.  It  is  common  to  the  South  and 
Southwest  and  is  usually  found  in  hot,  dry,  sandy  localities. 
It  has  a  flat,  circular  body,  somewhat  greater  in  diameter  than  a 
silver  doUar,  and  on  its  back  and  head  small  horn-like  protuber- 
ances appear  which  give  it  its  name.  These  "  horns  "  also  ap- 
pear around  the  edges  of  the  body.  The  tail  is  blunt,  the  legs 
are  rather  long  but  slender,  and  the  head  is  short  and  thick. 
The  entire  body  is  marked  with  duU  red,  orange,  yellow,  gray, 
and  black  spots  and  stripes  which,  together  with  the  "  horns," 
give  the  reptile  an  especially  unnatural  and  repulsive  appearance. 
It  is  perfectly  harmless  and  makes  frantic  efforts  to  escape  when 
approached. 

The  Mountain  Boomer. — This  is  another  large  lizard  found 
in  the  South  and  Southwest.  It  seldom  exceeds  8  inches  in 
length,  has  a  long,  cyUndrical  body,  and  a  large,  triangular  head, 
and  bears  markings  on  the  body  similar  in  color  to  those  of  the 
horned  toad,  the  chief  difference  being  the  brighter  hues.  It  is 
extremely  timid  and,  upon  being  approached,  runs  away  with 
hghtning-like  rapidity.  No  reason  can  be  given  for  the  origin 
of  the  name. 

The  Gila  Monster. — This  reptile  is  found  only  in  the  South- 
west, and  is  the  largest  and  the  only  poisonous  hzard  found  in 


316   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

this  country.  It  grows  to  a  length  of  18  or  20  inches,  and  has  a 
long,  cyUndrical  body  from  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter  and  marked 
with  red  and  brown  stripes,  the  legs  are  short  and  thick,  the 
head  and  tail  are  blunt  and  striped  with  red  and  brown  rings, 
and  the  movements  are  sluggish.  It  inhabits  low,  hot,  sandy 
localities,  and  the  bite,  though  poisonous,  is  not  necessarily  fatal. 

Poisonous  Snakes. — In  this  country  these  include  the  rattle- 
snakes,  copperhead,  and   water  moccasin  or  "  cotton-mouth," 
the  common  and  scientific  names  of  which  follow:  ^ 
Common  Name  Scientific  Name  Habitat 

Rattlesnakes 

Banded  or  timber.  .Crotalus  horridus Eastern  and  Central  U.  S. 

Diamond  back.  .  .  .Crotalus  adamanteus. .  .  .Southeastern  U.  S. 

Dog-faced Crotalus  molossus Ariz.,    N.    Mex.,    North 

Mexico 

Green Crotalus  lepidus Southwestern  U.  S. 

Homed Crotalus  cerastes Deserts,  Southwest  U.  S. 

ISIassasauga Sistrurus  catenatus Central  U.  S. 

Pacific Crotalus  oregonus West  U.  S. ;  Pacific  region 

Pigmy Sistrurus  miliarius Southeastern  U.  S. 

Prairie Crotalus  confluentus ....  East  of  Rocky  Moimtains 

Price's Crotalus  pricei Arizona 

Red Crotalus  atrox  ruber ....  South  Cal. ;  Lower  Cal. 

Texas Crotalus  atrox Texas,  Ariz.,  N.  Mexico 

TigOT Crotalus  tigris Southwestern  U.  S. 

West.  Massasauga. Sistrurus  catenatus  con- 

sors Southwestern  U.  S. 

White. Crotalus  mitchelli Deseriis;  Southwest  U.  S. 

Copperhead Ancistrodon  contortrix. . .  Eastern  and  Central  U.  S. 

to  Texas 

Water  ISIoccasin Ancistrodon  piscivorus .  .  Southwestern    U.    S. ; 

Florida  to  Texas 

Common  Characteristics. — The  most  prominent  physical  char- 
acteristics common  to  all  three  snakes  hsted  are  the  flat,  trian- 
gular head,  sharp  nose,  broad  jaws,  short,  heavy  body  rather 
disproportionate  to  its  length,  the  more  or  less  regular  and  well- 
defined  diamond-shaped  markings  of  the  skin,  the  hollow,  needle^ 
hke  fangs  of  the  upper  jaw  and  the  muscular  action  involved  in 
advancing  or  lowering  them,  the  process  of  emitting  poison 
from  the  poison  glands,  the  inability  to  strike  unless  coiled,  and 
the  serious  effects  of  the  bite. 

Fangs. — These  are  located  in  the  upper  jaw,  one  on  either 
side,  are  from  3/8  to  ^/^-inch  long,  hollow,  and  very  sharp,  and 

1  Supplied  by  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture. 


MISCELLANEOUS  317 

Ldightly  curved  toward  the  rear.  Except  when  used  for  offensive 
or  defensive  purposes  they  repose  backward  along  the  jaw,  but 
the  roots  are  so  attached  to  muscles  that  the  fangs  may  be 
advanced  instantly.  Their  backward  curve  causes  them  to  hang 
to  whatever  they  may  be  thrust  into. 

Poison  Glayids. — The  poison  glands  are  situated  at  the  root  of 
the  fangs  and  consist  merely  of  a  small  sac  containing  a  violent 
blood  poison  which  is  provided  in  such  quantities  by  the  snake's 
system  that  the  glands  are  always  suppUed,  except  immediately 
after  a  continued  attack  on  the  part  of  the  snake.  They  refill 
within  the  space  of  an  hour  or  so. 

Emission  of  Poison. — When  the  fang  is  thrust  into  the  victim, 
the  root  presses  against  the  poison  gland  and  forces  the  contents 
through  the  minute  tube  in  the  center  of  the  fang.  The 
process  is  similar  to  the  action  involved  in  using  a  hj'podermic 
sjTinge. 

The  Poison. — This  is  a  very  thin,  light  green  fluid  having  the 
nature  of  a  blood  poison,  although  its  presence  in  the  stomach 
will  produce  severe  attacks  of  vomiting  and  even  its  odor  may 
cause  nausea.  It  is  fatal  to  the  snake  when  self  administered 
through  accident  or  otherwise. 

General  Comparison  of  Rattlesnakes,  Copperheads  and  Moc- 
casins.— Size. — The  rattlesnake  varies  in  length  from  18  inches 
to  0  feet  and  instances  have  been  kno-^Ti  where  this  length  was 
exceeded.  The  girth  varies  from  3  to  8  inches.  The  body  is 
fairly  well  proportioned,  although  rather  heavy  for  its  length, 
and  at  the  rear  extremity  bears  a  series  of  horn-hke  rings,  com- 
monly called  "  rattles,"^  and  from  which  the  snake  derives  its 
name. 

Copperheads  are  so  called  from  the  bright  coppery  appear- 
ance of  the  head.  They  attain  a  length  of  from  12  to  24  inches 
and  in  girth  vary  from  3  to  6  inches.  The  body  is  short  and 
heavy  and  the  head  rather  disproportionately  large. 

Moccasins,  or  "  cotton-mouths  "  as  they  are  frequently  known, 
vary  in  length  from  18  inches  to  3  feet.     The  average  girth  is 

1  Contrary  to  a  general  belief,  the  number  of  rattles  does  not  indicate 
the  snake's  age.  The  young  snake  at  birth  possesses  the  "button" 
seen  at  the  end  of  a  perfect  series  of  rattles,  and  acquires  a  new  "rattle " 
each  time  the  skin  is  shed.  Shedding  may  occur  one,  two,  three  or 
even  four  times  in  a  year.  The  "rattles"  are  the  only  portion  of  the 
snake's  skin  that  is  not  shed. 


318   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

about  4  or  5  inches.     The  body  is  rather  flat  and  somewhat 
too  heavy  for  its  length. 

Color. — Rattlesnakes  vary  in  color  from  rusty  brown  to  light 
yellow.  The  diamonds  or  bands  are  darker  and  are  well  de- 
fined. The  under  side  of  the  body  may  be  splotched  with  yellow 
or  brown  markings.  Copperheads  are  of  a  rusty  brown  or 
copper  color.  If  shady  places  have  been  frequented  the  skin  is 
bright  and  smooth  with  a  Hght  copper  color;  when  sunburnt  it 
appears  rough  and  rusty.  Like  the  rattlesnakes,  copperheads  are 
marked  with  ''  diamonds  "  along  the  upper  side  of  the  body. 
These  diamonds  may  be  lighter  or  they  may  be  darker  than 
other  parts  of  the  skin.  They  diminish  in  size  toward  the  rear 
and  finally  disappear  altogether,  leaving  the  extreme  tail  tip  a 
sohd  color  and  usually  lighter  than  the  rest  of  the  skin.  They 
also  diminish  in  size  toward  the  head  but  do  not  disappear  en- 
tirely. The  head  is  smooth  and  Ught  brown  and  has  a  pro- 
nounced triangular  shape. 

Moccasins  are  also  marked  with  the  ''  diamonds."  The  gen- 
eral color  is  light  or  dark  brown,  depending  upon  whether  or  not 
the  skin  is  sunburnt.  The  scales  are  large  and  widely  sepa- 
rated so  that  when  they  are  slightly  displaced  the  white  skin 
show^s  through  between  them. 

Habits. — The  general  opinion  that  a  rattlesnake  aiways  warns 
his  victim  by  "  rattUng  "  is  erroneous.^  The  rule  is  general  but 
by  no  means  invariable  and  can  not  be  depended  upon  to  indi- 
cate the  snake's  presence  in  all  instances. 

These  snakes  frequent  clumps  of  bushes  or  grass  and  sage,  may 
be  found  coiled  under  cacti  or  in  rough  cUffs  or  stone  heaps,  and 
frequently  appear  coiled  or  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  warm 
sand  in  full  sunhght.  They  are  by  no  means  timid  but  are 
seldom  the  aggressor. 

Copperheads  are  distinctively  Southern,  although  they  appear 
in  some  of  the  Northern  States,  and  wdll  be  found  about 
barns,  granaries  and  other  outbuildings  infested  by  rats,  mice, 


1 A  diamond-back  rattlesnake  in  southern  Arkansas  was  pushed 
with  a  pole  from  the  shadows  of  a  bush  into  sunlight  for  its  photograph 
and  could  not  be  induced  to  "rattle";  a  prairie  rattlesnake  in  South 
Dakota  was  carried  for  a  distance  of  more  than  a  mile  entwined  in  a 
plum  bush  and  never  "rattled";  and  in  Arizona  a  dog-faced  rattle- 
snake, coiled  under  a  cactus,  could  not  be  induced  to  "rattle"  even 
though  it  was  dragged  out  and  stoned  to  death. 


MISCELLANEOUS  319 

and  lizards.  They  may  also  be  found  under  dwellings  or  about 
wells  and  springs  where  toads  and  frogs  appear.  At  other  places 
they  may  appear  under  clumps  of  brush  or  gi-ass  where  they  lie 
in  wait  for  prey,  or  they  may  be  found  stretched  out  full  length 
on  a  flat,  warm  rock  in  the  sunshine.  Frequently  they  are 
found  in  groups  of  from  two  to  a  dozen  individuals.  By  nature 
they  are  pugnacious  and  vicious  fighters  and  seldom  attempt  to 
escape  when  attacked.  They  are  stealthy,  move  silently,  and 
never  appear  in  a  hurry  unless  in  an  offensive  or  defensive 
attitude  when  they  strike  quickly,  accurately,  and  repeatedly. 

Moccasins,  which  on  account  of  the  soft  white,  cottonlike 
appearance  of  the  lining  of  their  mouths  are  frequently  known 
as  "  cotton-mouths,"  inhabit  lagoons,  bayous,  pools,  and  streams 
of  running  water.  They  also  appear  in  swamps  and  drainage 
ditches  or  along  water-filled  ditches  beside  roads  and  trails. 
They  are  of  a  timid  nature  and  will  escape  from  danger  when 
this  is  possible  but  fight  with  vigor  when  forced  to  defend  them- 
selves. Their  strength  and  great  size  render  them  formidable 
opponents. 

LOCATION    OF    CAMP    SITES 

Water. — The  one  thing  of  most  importance  in  locating  a  camp 
site  is  a  supply  of  water.  This  is  absolutely  essential  except 
at  temporary  camps  where  a  supply  of  water  is  provided  in  bar- 
rels or  canteens. 

When  camps  are  to  be  more  or  less  permanent  in  nature  they 
should  be  located  at  a  point  far  enough  away  from  and  above  the 
source  of  water  supply  to  prevent  its  contamination  by  contact 
with  camp  refuse  if  this  is  allowed  to  accumulate.  It  should, 
however,  either  be  burned  or  buried. 

Fuel. — This  is  the  next  important  item  to  consider.  Ordi- 
narily, where  camps  are  estabUshed  in  wooded  regions,  there  will 
be  found  sufficient  dead  and  down  material  to  provide  for  all 
fuel  needed  either  for  heating  or  cooking  purposes.  But  if  no 
wood  is  available  and  a  camp  is  to  be  made  in  open  country, 
dry  stock  manure  wuU  prove  an  excellent  substitute. 

Accessibility. — This  also  demands  close  attention.  If  trans- 
portation of  equipment  and  supplies  is  to  be  by  means  of  wagons 
it  is  especially  desirable  to  have  the  camp  located  at  a  point 
where  the  wagons  may  reach  it  without  difficulty  and  where 
they  may  even  have  plenty  of  room  in  which  to  be  backed  or 


320   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

turned  about.  The  camp  may  be  located  in  a  much  rougher 
place,  however,  if  pack  animals  are  to  be  used.  In  either  event 
it  should  be  so  located  as  to  provide  easy  access  to  whatever 
work  is  to  be  done. 

Protection. — After  the  questions  of  water,  fuel,  and  accessi- 
biUty  have  been  satisfactorily  settled,  the  one  of  protection 
should  next  be  considered.  For  example:  Winter  camps  located 
on  north  slopes  where  little  surdight  can  penetrate  through  pos- 
sibly heavy  timber  prove  very  dreary  and  uncomfortable.  On 
the  other  hand,  summer  camps  located  on  bare,  exposed  south 
slopes  are  equally  uncomfortable. 

When  camps  must  be  estabUshed  in  country-  where  stock 
grazes  at  large  it  is  always  advisable  to  construct  some  sort  of 
fence  about  the  tents  or  other  equipment. 

Camp  Fires. — Location. — The  average  novice,  when  he  builds 
his  first  camp  fire,  does  so  with  absolute  disregard  of  the  wind's 
direction  and  velocity,  the  nature  of  the  fuel  he  must  use,  and 
the  amount  of  fuel  he  may  have  at  his  disposal.  The  fire  should 
be  located  at  a  point  far  enough  and  in  a  direction  from  the 
camp  to  prevent  embers  or  smoke  from  blowing  into  the  tents 
or  bedding.  If  the  fire  is  to  be  cooked  over,  however,  it 
should  not  be  so  far  away  from  the  dining  tent  that  valuable 
time  may  be  lost  in  going  to  and  from  it. 

Building  the  Fire. — Small,  dry  fuel  should  be  placed  directly 
on  the  ground  and  covered  with  the  coarser  fuel,  the  latter 
being  prevented  from  smothering  the  blaze  by  the  support  of 
stones  or  logs  placed  beside  the  spot  selected  for  the  fire.  Green 
logs  are  preferable  for  this  use  and  should  be  laid  parallel  with 
each  other,  one  on  either  side  of  the  fire;  placed  in  this  position 
they  not  only  serve  as  a  means  of  support  for  the  fuel  but  they 
also  act  as  walls  for  the  confinement  of  the  five  coals. 

Camp  fires  should  never,  in  any  instance,  be  built  against  the 
trunks  of  large  trees  or  against  large  logs  that  will  not  be  com- 
pletely consumed  by  the  time  camp  is  to  be  moved.  Neither 
should  they  be  built  in  the  midst  of  inflammable  material  until 
a  wide  area  has  been  swept  off  quite  clean. 

Fuel  Woods. — Dry  wood  will  be  found  preferable  to  green 
wood  if  a  quick,  hot  fire  is  desired  either  for  heating  or  cooking. 
Dry  heartwood  of  any  of  the  pines  makes  good  kindUng  but  is 
not  satisfactory  when  used  exclusively  in  camp  fires  or  camp 
stoves;   the  deposits  made  by  the  smoke  soon  clog  a  stovepipe, 


MISCELLANEOUS  321 

and  this  demands  frequent  attention  in  the  matter  of  opening 
the  pipe. 

Dead  aspen  (Populus  trcnndoidcs),  or  any  of  the  oaks,  hick- 
ories, or  junipers,  will  be  found  very  good  for  stove  wood,  as  will 
also  mesquit,  chaparral,  dry  manzanita  and  greasewood.  Dry 
juniper  is  not  a  satisfactory  fuel  for  open  camp  fires;  the  con- 
stant snapping  and  cracking  frequently  throw  Uve  coals  to  a 
considerable  distance  and  these  may  fall  on  the  tents,  bedding, 
or  other  inflammable  equipment. 

After  a  deep  bed  of  live  coals  has  been  secured,  any  of  the 
oaks  wiU  prove  very  satisfactory  for  extended  heating  purposes. 
The  coals  of  such  a  fire  may  be  well  covered  with  ashes  at  night 
and  enough  of  them  kept  alive  to  supply  considerable  heat  the 
next  morning. 

Care  of  the  Fire. — Regulations  concerning  camp  fires  in  the 
National  Forests  are  particularly  stringent  and  good  care  must 
be  taken  to  see  that  a  general  conflagration  does  not  result  from 
a  camp  fire.  When  camp  is  moved,  the  fire  should  be  completely 
covered  with  dirt  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  an}-  flames  or 
live  coals.  If  water  is  available,  it  should  be  used  freely  and  the 
coals  thoroughly  drenched,  but  in  any  case  covering  with  dirt 
is  advisable. 

Six  Rules  for  Prevention  of  Fires  in  the  Mountains. — The  fol- 
lowing six  rules  for  prevention  of  fires  are  quoted  from  page  22, 
U.  B.,  1915: 

1.  Matches. — Be  sure  your  match  is  out.     Break  it  in  two 

before  j'ou  throw  it  away. 

2.  Tobacco. — Throw  pipe  ashes  and  cigar  or  cigarette  stumps 

in  the  dust  of  the  road  and  stamp  or  pinch  out  the  fire 
before  leaving  them.  Don't  throw  them  into  brush, 
leaves,  or  needles. 

3.  Making  Camp. — Build  a  small  camp  fire.     Build  it  in  the 

open,  not  against  a  tree  or  log,  or  near  brush.  Scrape 
away  the  trash  from  aU  around  it. 

4.  Leaving  Camp. — Never  leave  a  camp  fire,  ev^  for  a  short 

time,  without  quenching  it  with  water  or  earth. 

5.  Bonfires. — Never  build  bonfires  in  windy  weather  or  where 

there  is  the  sHghtest  danger  of  theh-  escaping  from 
control.      Don't  make  them  larger  than  you  need. 

6.  Fighting  Fires. — If  j^ou  find  a  fire,  try  to  put  it  out.     If  you 

can't,  get  word  of  it  to  the  nearest  United  States  forest 


322   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

ranger  or  State  fire  warden  at  once.     Keep  in  touch  with 

the  rangers. 
Protection  of  the  Public  Health. — Unfortunately  there  appears 
to  be  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  a  certain  class  of  thoughtless 
campers  to  pay  httle  or  no  attention  to  sanitary  precautions  in 
their  o^ti  camps  or  to  the  weKare  of  the  local  residents  among 
whom  they  may  be  temporarily  located.  Forest  officers,  how- 
ever, have  definite  instructions  to  see  that  sanitary  measures  are 
adopted  by  the  camping  pubHc,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
regulation  appearing  on  page  29,  U.  B.,  1915: 

Reg.  P-4.  The  following  acts  are  prohibited:  Ha\ing  or  leaving  in 
an  exposed  or  insanitary'  condition  on  National  Forest  lands  camp 
refuse  or  debris  of  any  description,  or  depositing  on  National  Forest 
lands  or  being  or  going  thereon  and  depositing  in  the  streams,  lakes, 
or  other  waters  within  or  bordering  upon  the  National  Forests  any 
substance  or  substances  which  pollute  or  are  Uable  to  cause  pollution 
of  the  said  streams,  lakes,  or  waters. 

In  explanation  of  this  regulation  "  The  Use  Book  "  goes  on 
to  say : 

"Every  precaution  will  be  taken  by  forest  officers  to  protect  the 
public  health.  All  persons  on  National  Forest  lands  are  Uable  to 
trespass  proceedings  if  insanitary  conditions  result  from  their  presence. 
The  main  danger  to  be  guarded  against  is  that  of  tjT)hoid  fever,  re- 
sulting from  toilet  accommodations  which  drain  to  waters  used  for 
domestic  purposes,  and  from  the  exposure  of  refuse  of  all  kinds  to 
flies.  In  large  or  permanent  camps  latrines  must  be  dug  in  suitable 
locations  remote  from  the  water,  and  disinfectants  should  be  used 
freely.  All  camp  refuse  must  be  disposed  of,  either  by  burjing  or 
burning.  In  small  temporary  camps  suitable  precautions  should  be 
observed,  and  refuse  of  all  kinds  must  be  kept  weU  away  from  the 
water.  The  carcasses  of  all  dead  animals  when  they  are  a  menace  to 
public  health  should  be  buried  or  burned.  ..." 

"Forest  officers  ^yiU  enforce  compUance  with  Regulation  P-4  on  the 
part  of  aU  campers,  stockmen,  permittees,  and  other  persons  traveling 
through  or  occupying  National  Forest  lands." 

CONFUSION    OF    DIRECTIONS 

This  presents  about  as  unpleasant  a  problem  for  the  field  man 
as  any  he  encounters,  and  since  its  occurrence  is  so  frequent  and 
so  common  to  the  beginner  in  the  field  service  a  few  general 
suggestions  may  prove  of  value. 

When  they  are  obtainable  the  field  man  should  secure  reUable 
maps  of  the  country  in  which  he  is  to  work.  He  should  make 
a  special  study  of  the  location  of  streams,  mountain  ranges, 


MISCELLANEOUS  323 

roads,  trails,  settlements,  mines,  sawmills,  and  other  features 
which  may  serve  as  guides  by  which  he  may  travel.  He  may 
observe,  for  example,  that  the  drainage  of  a  particular  locahty 
is  westward,  that  main  lines  of  travel  are  along  vallej's  or  on 
the  tops  of  ridges,  that  a  prominent  mountain  top  has  a  certain 
easily  remembered  location  with  reference  to  other  and  less 
prominent  peaks,  that  north  slopes  may  be  steeper  than  south 
slopes,  or  vice  versa,  that  certain  villages  or  ranches  are  located 
at  pecuUar  or  unusual  points,  and  he  may,  by  close  observation, 
notice  numerous  other  pertinent  facts  that  may  be  of  great 
value  to  him  at  a  time  when  they  are  especially  necessary. 

It  seldom  happens  that  maps  of  this  sort  are  not  available, 
but  in  event  they  can  not  be  secured,  then  the  field  man  must 
rely  either  upon  the  advice  of  local  settlers  or  else  upon  his  own 
ability  to  reach  his  destination.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  inabihty  to  travel  directly  through  strange  territory  is  not 
confined  strictly  to  inexperienced  travelers;  veteran  woodsmen 
occasionally  "  get  lost  "  and  sometimes  have  considerable  trouble 
in  ascertaining  even  their  approximate  location.  In  such  cases, 
however,  their  confusion  is  due  to  carelessness  and  to  only  casual 
instead  of  close  observation  of  their  surroundings. 

It  is  always  well  to  take  frequent  "back  sights"  at  the  coun- 
try gone  over.  This  presents  to  the  traveler  views  of  certain 
landmarks  as  they  will  appear  on  his  return  trip,  and  as  a  result 
he  wiU  be  able  to  retrace  his  former  route  with  less  difficulty. 

Upon  proper  requisition  the  field  man  may  secure  a  regula- 
tion Forest  Service  compass,  and  if  he  has  one  of  these  along 
he  should  consult  it  immediately  upon  discovering  that  he  has 
been  traveling  in  the  wTong  direction.  On  such  occasions  he 
will  invariably  have  a  feehng  that  the  compass  may  possibly 
be  out  of  order  and  that  it  is  not  working  properly,  complete 
faith  in  his  own  sense  of  direction  may  make  him  unwilhng  to 
be  guided  by  a  mechanical  contrivance,  and  he  will  follow  the 
compass  directions  with  reluctance.  At  such  times  there  should 
be  no  doubt  as  to  the  reliabihty  of  the  compass.  It  is  true,  of 
course,  that  the  instrument  may  have  been  damaged  by  careless 
handhng,  and  that  as  a  consequence  it  will  fail  to  work  properly, 
but  this  or  a  similar  contingency  is  the  only  one  in  which  the 
compass  should  be  disregarded. 

On  days  when  the  sun  may  be  seen  a  common  watch  may  be 
used  as  a  means  of  determining  the  approximate  direction  in 


324   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

which  a  person  is  traveling.  The  end  of  the  hour-hand  is  pointed 
toward  the  sun;  a  hne  projected  from  the  pivot  on  which  the 
hands  are  hung  over  a  point  mid-way  between  the  end  of  the 
hour-hand  and  the  figure  "  12 "  will  run  approximately 
south.  1 

When  "  lost  "  at  night  the  traveler  may  observe  the  stars,  if 
these  are  visible,  and  ascertain  his  general  direction  of  travel 
from  them.  A  very  prominent  constellation  is  Ursa  Major,  or 
the  Big  Dipper,  consisting  of  seven  stars,  each  having  an  indi- 
vidual name  and  known  from  the  end  star  in  the  handle  suc- 
cessively as  Benetnasch  (a  white  sun),  Mizar  (white  and  emerald), 
Alioth  (very  bright),  Megrez  (yellow),  Precda  (yellow),  Merak 
(greenish  white),  and  Dubhe  (yellow).  Two  of  these,  Merak 
and  Dubhe,  on  the  side  of  the  dipper  opposite  the  handle,  are 
in  line  with  the  pole-star  and  are  known  as  "  pointers."  The 
curved  line  marked  by  Alioth,  Mizar,  and  Benetnasch  points 
directly  toward  Arcturus.  The  pole-star  forms  the  extremity 
of  another  constellation  called  Ursa  Minor,  or  the  Little  Dipper, 
which  also  consists  of  seven  stars.  Another  constellation  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  these  two  consists  of  five  stars  of  the  third 
magnitude  arranged  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  M  and 
called  Cassiopeia.  Further  east  are  the  Pleiades,  six  stars  in 
number  and  all  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Orion  is  the  most 
prominent  southern  constellation,  can  best  be  studied  during  the 
winter  months,  and  sets  at  the  same  time  the  constellation 
called  the  Scorpion  rises.  Another  constellation,  the  Twins, 
appears  in  the  region  of  the  Pleiades.  To  the  east  of  the  Twins 
appears  the  Lion,  consisting  of  three  stars  of  the  second  magni- 
tude and  one  of  the  first,  others  in  the  constellation  not  being 
easily  discerned  with  the  naked  eye. 

If  neither  the  sun  nor  stars  can  be  used  in  determining  direc- 
tion then  the  traveler  must  rely  upon  his  general  knowledge  of 
the  section  in  which  he  is  located.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  in  sparsely  settled  localities  the  few  settlements  which  do 
occur  are  found  mostly  along  the  watercourses  which,  conse- 
quently, should  be  followed  rather  than  crossed.  Ordinarily  the 
first  settler  met  with  will  be  able  to  direct  the  traveler  further. 

Ascertaining  directions  by  means  of  the  moss  on  trees  in 
localities  where  the  timber-stand  is  dense  is  quite   rehable,  but 

1  Applicable  only  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 


MISCELLANEOUS  325 

is  never  a  safe  guide  in  sections  where  a  thin  stand  of  timber 
allows  air  and  sunhght  to  penetrate  thoroughly. 

Confusion  of  directions  on  a  prairie,  where  it  is  much  more 
likely  to  occur  than  in  timber,  may  be  removed  by  careful  at- 
tention to  the  manner  in  which  the  grass  stems  lean;  prevalent 
southwest  winds  will  eventually  cause  them  to  lean  to  the 
northeast. 

In  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  the  Occident  ant 
{Pogonomyrmex  occidentalis)  throws  up  a  mound  of  coarse  sand 
and  fine  gravel  and  in  nearly  every  instance  leaves  an  opening 
at  the  southeast  side,  presumably  in  order  that  the  early  morning 
sun  may  warm  the  runway  sooner.  Careful  observation  of  a 
group  of  these  mounds  will  assist  the  traveler  in  getting  his 
bearings.  In  the  same  locaUties  the  Thatching  ant  {Formica 
ruhiginosa)  covers  its  mounds  with  pine  needles,  straws,  grass 
stems,  and  small  t'U'igs,  and  also  generally  leaves  an  opening  at 
the  southeast  side.  This  rule  is  not  followed  as  closely,  how- 
ever, as  in  the  case  of  the  Occident  ant. 

Quite  naturally,  the  realization  that  he  is  lost  in  strange  terri- 
tory confuses  the  average  traveler,  and  this  confusion  may  extend 
to  and  so  affect  his  judgment  that  he  may  run  wildly  about  in 
a  frantic  attempt  to  locate  some  known  landmark  and  thus 
extricate  himseK  from  his  dilemma.  Under  such  conditions  he 
may  strike  a  road  or  trail  that  he  has  been  over,  but  in  his 
confusion  is  unable  to  recognize  it,  and  he  continues  to  wander 
about  until  physical  exhaustion  overcomes  him. 

Such  excitement  is,  of  course,  wholly  uncalled  for.  If  night 
overtakes  him  he  should  make  no  attempt  to  proceed  further, 
but  should  make  the  best  of  matters  and  wait  for  dayhght; 
this  may  seem  Uke  a  waste  of  time,  but,  on  the  contrarj-,  it  is  the 
best  means  of  saving  time. 

If  he  is  accompanied  by  another  person  who  is  familiar  with 
the  country  being  traveled  over  he  should  not  question  that 
person's  judgment  even  though  it  may  seem  that  a  contrary 
direction  is  being  followed. 

FASTENINGS 

Knots. — The  field  man  who  must  be  continually  packing,  sad- 
dling, tethering  animals,  raising  and  lowering  articles  by  means 
-yi  ropes,  or  using  ropes  in  a  number  of  other  ways  should  be 


326   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

more  or  less  familiar  with  those  knots  for  which  he  may  have 
the  greatest  use.  Ordinarily,  he  need  not  have  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  all  knots  but  he  should  possess  a  working  knowledge  of 
most  of  the  simpler  ones,  and  for  that  reason  these  are  illustrated 
and  discussed  here. 

In  order  to  simplify  the  subject  as  much  as  possible,  it  will  be 
considered  as  including  knots,  nooses,  hitches,  latigo  ties,  and 
splices.  Technical  terms  will  be  avoided  in  so  far  as  this  may 
be  practicable. 

It  is  suggested  that  if  the  beginner  wishes  to  practice  the  con- 
struction of  the  various  knots  by  endeavoring  to  tie  them  as 
he  refers  to  the  illustrations,  he  provide  himself  with  a  6-foot 
length  of  ^-inch  braided  cotton  Une.  This  will  not  twist  or 
tangle  as  badly  as  twisted  Une.  However,  the  latter  must  be 
used  while  sphces  are  being  studied.  If  knots  or  ties  are  to  be 
made  in  leather  he  should  secure  a  very  pliant  piece  with  which 
to  experiment. 

Overhand. ^This  is  the  simplest  knot  tied  and  its  construction 
needs  no  explanation.  It  is  used  at  the  ends  of  ropes  to  prevent 
the  strands  from  untwisting,  may  be  used  as  a  means  of  mark- 
ing spaces  along  a  Une,  or  may  serve  as  a  check-knot  for  loops 
of  Unes  working  on  others. 

Surgical. — This  is  used  chiefly  by  surgeons  in  securing  severed 
artery  ends  and  for  other  purposes  where  small  knots  that  will 
not  sUp  are  required.  It  is  constructed  the  same  as  the  over- 
hand except  that  one  end  is  given  an  extra  turn  about  the  other. 
It  may  be  released  by  pulUng  either  end  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  the  series  of  turns. 

Staffordshire  or  Tail. — The  term  "  Tait's  "  knot  is  taken  from 
the  name  of  the  surgeon  who  first  employed  it.  In  construc- 
tion it  is  the  same  as  the  surgical  knot  except  that  a  round  turn 
is  taken  before  the  latter  is  tied.  It  is  also  loosened  the  same 
as  the  surgical  knot. 

Square  or  Reef. — This  is  another  common  knot  used  chiefly  in 
fastening  loose  ends  together.  Its  construction  is  so  simple  as 
to  require  no  explanation. 

Combined  Surgical  and  Reef. — The  chief  advantage  of  this 
knot  over  the  plain  surgical  knot  is  the  method  by  which  the 
ends  are  made  fast  and  which  prevents  them  from  sUpping.  It 
is  opened  by  pulUng  the  loose  ends  in  a  direction  at  right  angles 
to  the  reef. 


Overhand. 


Granny 


Sheep-shank. 


Surgical. 


Thief. 


Carrick  bend. 


Staffordshire 
or  "Tait's." 


Figure  8. 


Double  overhand. 


Square  or  reef.  Single  sheet  bend.  Double  sheet  bend. 


Combined 
surgical  and  reef. 


Bowline. 


Overhand 
and  half  hitch. 


Running  bowline.  Bowline  on  a  bight. 

Fig.  224. — Knots. 


328   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Granny. — At  first  glance  this  appears  to  be  identical  in  con- 
struction with  the  square  or  reef,  but  close  observation  wiU  reveal 
the  fact  that  in  the  latter  the  ends  leave  the  other  loop  from 
the  same  side  on  which  they  entered  it,  while  in  the  granny 
they  leave  from  the  opposite  side. 

Thief. — This  also  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  square  and 
granny  knots.  However,  it  will  be  observed  to  differ  from  the 
first  in  having  one  loose  end  at  the  top  and  the  other  at  the 
bottom.  It  difTers  from  the  second  in  that  the  ends  enter  and 
leave  the  knot  at  the  same  side. 

Figure  8. — This  knot  is  used  chiefly  for  ornamental  purposes, 
being  frequently  tied  in  the  braid  of  official  caps  and  uniforms. 
For  practical  purposes  it  is  no  better  than  the  overhand. 

Single  Sheet  Bend. — In  making  this  the  loop  is  the  first  part 
to  be  formed.  The  loose  end  is  then  passed  through  it,  around 
the  neck,  and  back  between  the  loop  and  itseK.  The  knot  will 
not  slip  if  properly  constructed  and  is  a  very  reUable  method 
of  tying  animals  by  the  neck.  When  used  for  this  purpose  the 
loop  is  constructed  far  enough  back  from  the  end  of  the  rope  to 
allow  the  latter  to  reach  around  the  animal's  neck  and  fasten 
into  the  loop.  Its  chief  disadvantage  for  such  use  is  that  it 
may  be  drawn  so  tight  that  it  can  be  opened  only  by  cutting 
the  rope.  However,  this  trouble  may  be  avoided  if  the  loose 
end  is  tied  in  a  draw  loop. 

Double  Sheet  Bend. — The  construction  of  this  knot  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  single  sheet  bend  except  that  the  loose  end 
encircles  the  loop  twice  instead  of  once,  passing  beneath  itself 
both  times. 

Bowline. — This  is  usually  pronounced  "  bolan."  Like  the 
single  sheet  bend  it  can  not  slip  if  properly  constructed.  The 
loose  end  is  passed  through  a  half  hitch  in  the  long  end  from 
the  under  side,  crosses  under  the  long  end,  and  doubles  back 
over  itseK  and  through  the  half  hitch  from  the  upper  side. 

Running  Bowline. — This  is  constructed  the  same  as  a  bowline 
except  that  a  larger  noose  is  provided  for.  The  bowline  may 
be  tied  about  the  long  end  of  the  line  or,  if  the  latter  is  loose, 
it  may  be  passed  through  the  bowline.  The  running  bowline 
is  used  where  nooses  must  be  opened  and  closed  quickly  and 
easily. 

Bowline  on  a  Bight. — The  construction  of  this  is  slightly  dif- 
ferent from  the  other  bowlines  shown.     Owing  to  the  use  of  a 


MISCELLANEOUS  329 

double  line  throughout  the  knot  it  is  much  more  easily  tied. 
If  properly  constructed  the  loop  will  not  close  up. 

Sheep-shank. — The  chief  use  of  this  knot  is  in  taking  up  slack 
in  a  Une.  Its  regular  construction  is  rather  too  comphcated  to 
explain  here,  but  a  simpler  and  just  as  effective  method  is  merely 
to  turn  the  half  hitches  about  the  loops. 

Carrick  Bend. — Like  the  figure  8  this  is  used  chiefly  for  orna- 
mental purposes  though  it  may  be  used  in  tying  hues  together. 
It  will  not  slip  if  tightened  evenly. 

Turk's  Head. — This  knot  is  frequently  used  at  the  ends  of 
Hues  to  prevent  the  strands  from  untwisting.     Four  incorrect 


Incorrect  starts.  Correct  start. 

Fig.  225. — Turk's  head. 

methods  of  starting  it  are  shown.  The  fifth  illustration  shows 
the  correct  method.  After  the  strands  have  been  made  fast  under 
each  other  as  shown  here,  the  ends  are  disposed  of  as  follows: 
No.  1  passes  around  outside  of  3,  upward  between  itself  and  3, 
and  out  through  the  triangle  formed  by  1,  2,  and  3;  2  passes 
around  outside  of  1,  upward  between  itself  and  1,  and  out 
through  the  triangle;  3  passes  around  outside  of  2,  upward 
between  itseK  and  2,  and  out  through  the  triangle.  After  the 
knot  has  been  drawn  tight  the  loose  ends  should  be  cut  away 
close  to  it.  Turk's  heads  are  tied  in  hnes  of  more  than  three 
strands  by  following  the  same  method  of  procedure. 

Overhand  and  Half  Hitch. — The  chief  advantage  of  this  knot 
lies  in  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  finished  after  the  first 
part  has  been  tied  and  while  there  is  great  draft  on  the  Unes. 
After  the  overhand  has  been  tied  a  half  hitch  in  one  end  is 
taken  about  a  loop  in  the  other.  It  may  be  completely  released 
by  pulling  the  loop  backward  through  the  half  hitch.  It  is 
especially  adapted  to  fastening  down  a  grain  pack. 

Double  Overhand. — This  may  be  tied  in  rope  but  is  especially 
suitable  for  tying  leather  and  is  frequently  used  at  the  end  of  a 
pair  of  reins.  The  two  loops  are  first  formed,  the  short  end  of 
the  one  to  the  left  being  toward  the  operator,  and  that  of  the 
the  one  to  the  right  in  the  opposite  direction.     The  end  of  the 


330    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

first  is  then  passed  to  the  right  around  the  second  and  forward 
through  the  loop  formed  by  itself.  The  end  of  the  second  is 
passed  to  the  left  around  the  first  and  out  rearward  through 
its  own  loop. 

Nooses. —  Hangman's  Noose. — This  noose  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  frequently  used  in  the  execution  of  crim- 
inals. When  used  for  this  purpose  the  knot,  usually  consisting 
of  nine  turns,  is  placed  at  the  left  side  of  the  neck  against  the 
ear.  Being  quite  stiff  it  suddenly  forces  the  head  to  the  right 
at  the  moment  the  weight  of  the  body  comes  against  the  noose 


Hangman's. 


Halter.  SUp. 

Fig.  226. — Nooses. 

and  two  or  more  of  the  neck  joints  are  separated.  When  prop- 
erly constructed  it  also  closes  quickly  and  becomes  tighter  as 
the  weight  remains  suspended  from  it.  It  is  also  a  favorite 
method  used  by  horseman  in  disposing  of  long  dangUng  ends 
of  saddle-strings  or  in  fastening  up  halter-ropes  that  will  not 
be  used  for  some  time. 

The  turns  begin  at  the  noose  after  the  long  inner  loop  has 
been  laid  along  the  other  side  of  the  noose.  The  end  is  secured 
by  being  passed  through  the  end  of  the  inner  loop.  If  it  is  to 
be  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  remain  open  an  overhand 
knot  must  be  tied  at  either  side  immediately  before  the  first  turn. 

Halter  Noose. — This  noose  is  made  by  passing  the  loose  end 
of  a  rope  through  an  overhand  knot  tied  at  a  point  far  enough 
from  the  end  to  allow  the  noose  to  encircle  an  animal's  neck. 
The  end  is  also  tied  in  an  overhand  knot  which  prevents  it  from 
pulling  through  the  first  one.     The  noose  can  not  be  closed  by 


MISCELLANEOUS 


331 


draft  on  the  long  end  of  the  rope,  but  the  knots  may  be  drawn 
so  tight  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  the  rope  before  the 
noose  can  be  opened. 

Slip  Noose. — For  use  where  it  must  close  by  draft  this  noose 
is  quite  reliable.  However,  a  very  stiff  rope  can  hardly  be  tied 
so  the  overhand  will  not  open  when  the  draft  is  apphed.  This 
trouble  may  be  remedied  by  giving  the  loose  end  a  half-hitch 
about  itself  just  to  the  rear  of  the  overhand. 

Hitches. —  Half  Hitch. — Practically  all  of  the  more  compH- 
cated  knots  include  some  use  of  the  half-hitch  or  its  more  elab- 


Clove  hitch. 


Clove  and  a  half. 


Round  tu 

and  2  half 

bitchea 


Anchor  hitch  Mooring  hitch  Telephone  hitch 

Fig.  227.— Hitches. 


orate  formation  as  a  clove  hitch.  In  constructing  it,  the  Hne 
is  grasped  in  both  hands  held  with  the  palms  downward,  the 
thumbs  tow^ard  each  other.  The  left  palm  is  then  turned  up- 
ward and  the  tips  of  the  thumbs  are  brought  together.  The 
left  thumb  may  be  raised  from  the  line  and   lowered  on  the 


332   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

length  which  crosses  just  before  it.  In  this  way  the  hitch  may- 
be held  with  the  left  hand  while  the  right  is  used  otherwise,  as 
may  be  required. 

Clove  Hitch. — Like  the  preceding  hitch  this  one  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  construction  of  a  number  of  the  more 
compHcated  hitches.  It  will  not  sUp  when  properly  constructed 
and  is  therefore  especially  convenient  in  fastening  tent  ropes 
and  in  making  ropes  fast  otherwise.  It  is  constructed  of  two 
half  hitches,  one  in  either  hand,  the  inner  edge  of  the  one  to 
the  right  being  passed  under  the  corresponding  edge  of  the  one 
at  the  left  and  across  to  the  opposite  side.  This  permits  the 
hitches  to  coincide,  and  the  clove  may  then  be  dropped  do\\Ti 
over  the  tent-peg  or  other  object  to  which  the  rope  is  to  be  tied. 

Clove  and  a  Half. — This  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the 
clove  and  is  constructed  in  a  similar  manner  except  that  one 
more  half  hitch  is  included. 

Timber  Hitch. — This  is  made  simply  by  taking  a  half  hitch 
about  the  long  end  of  a  line  and  fastening  the  loose  end  by 
passing  it  over,  around,  and  under  the  rope  to  the  rear  of  the 
half  hitch  so  it  rests  against  the  article  about  which  the  timber 
hitch  is  taken.  It  is  used  as  a  means  of  raising  logs,  timbers, 
or  similar  articles,  or  may  be  used  in  securing  them  to  others. 
It  is  prevented  from  slipping  by  the  pressure  of  the  rope  against 
the  loose  end  passed  under  it,  and  can  be  easily  loosened  by 
releasing  the  draft  on  the  long  end.  This  allows  the  half  hitch 
to  be  shpped  backward  and  reheves  it  of  its  owti  pressure. 

Timber  and  Half  Hitch. — The  most  common  use  of  this  tie 
is  in  raising  vertical  timbers.  The  timber  hitch  not  only  pro- 
vides greater  binding  capacity  but  also  fastens  the  end  of  the 
half  hitch.  To  release  it,  slack  the  long  end  of  the  line.  This 
allows  the  timber  hitch  to  be  removed  and  the  half  hitch  can 
then  be  taken  off. 

Overhand  Sling. — This  is  for  use  in  raising  boxes,  barrels,  and 
similar  articles.  It  consists  of  an  overhand  knot  passed  about 
the  article  to  be  raised,  one  length  of  the  knot  passing  under  it 
and  the  other  two  about  the  sides.  Removal  of  the  draft 
releases  it. 

Bowline  Sling. — This  may  be  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
the  overhand  sUng  and  is  especially  adapted  to  raising  articles 
that  are  not  to  be  turned  or  rolled.  Two  half  hitches  are  taken 
about  the  article  and  the  loose  ends  are  tied  together  in  a  bow- 


MISCELLANEOUS  333 

line.  Where  great  weight  is  likely  to  puU  the  bowline  tight  it 
should  be  tied  ^4th  a  draw  loop.  To  release  the  sling,  loosen  the 
bowhne. 

Rolling  Hitch. — This  consists  of  a  clove  hitch  with  the  ends 
passed  under  a  turn  taken  between  the  two  sides  of  the  clove. 
To  release  it  loosen  one  end.  This  opens  the  turn  and  permits 
the  other  end  to  be  removed. 

Mooring  Hitch. — As  its  name  indicates  this  hitch  is  used  in 
mooring  vessels  to  wharves.  At  first  glance  it  may  appear  to 
be  the  same  as  the  rolUng  hitch.  However,  its  construction  dif- 
fers in  having  one  side  of  the  clove  bound  by  the  turn  t\\ace 
instead  of  once  as  in  the  rolling  hitch.  To  release  it  loosen 
the  side  of  the  clove  that  is  bound  only  once.  This  opens  the 
clove  and  removes  the  pressure  from  both  places  on  the  other 
side. 

Two  Half  Hitches. — This  consists  merely  of  a  clove  hitch 
taken  about  the  long  end  of  a  Une.  If  there  is  reason  to  beUeve 
it  may  be  dra\\Ti  so  tightly  as  to  be  released  onl}^  with  difficulty 
the  second  haK  hitch  should  be  made  with  a  draw  loop.  If  the 
article  to  which  it  is  tied  is  very  smooth  or  if  it  tapers  consid- 
erably the  loop  may  sUp  along. 

Round  Turn  and  Two  Half  Hitches. — The  construction  of  this 
is  similar  to  that  of  two  half  hitches  except  that  the  Hne  is 
given  a  turn  about  the  object  to  be  tied.  Its  advantage  over 
the  two  haK  hitches  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  turn  prevents  the 
hitch  from  sUpping  unless  an  article  has  a  very  great  amount 
of  taper.     It  is  released  by  removal  of  the  second  half  hitch. 

Anchor  Hitch. — This  is  constructed  the  same  as  the  preced- 
ing hitch,  except  that  after  the  loose  end  has  been  passed  about 
the  line  it  is  then  passed  through  the  turn  before  the  second 
half  hitch  is  taken  about  the  line.  To  release  it  remove  the 
second  half  hitch  and  pull  the  line  dowTiward  as  if  starting  a 
second  turn.  This  loosens  the  turn  ah-eady  taken  and  permits 
the  loose  end  to  be  dra^n  backward  through  it. 

Telephone  Hitch. — This  is  for  use  in  dragging  poles  or  timbers 
lengthwise.  It  is  constructed  by  passing  the  ends  of  a  doubled 
line  about  the  timber  from  opposite  directions  and  tying  the 
ends  together  in  an  overhand  knot.  To  release  it  pull  the 
overhand  backward  and  open  it. 

CaVs  Paw. — ^Two  lines  may  be  used  in  this  hitch.  One  is 
given  a  round  turn  about  an  object  and  the  ends  are  then  tied 


334   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

together.  The  other  is  passed  through  the  turn  a  number  of 
times  and  made  fast  by  passing  the  loose  end  through  the  turn 
about  itseK,  To  release  it  remove  the  draft  and  withdraw  the 
loose  end. 

Blackwall  Hitch. — This  hitch  is  used  in  fastening  a  line  into 
a  hook  and  consists  merely  of  a  half  hitch  taken  about  the 
hook  shank,  the  line  crossing  itself  in  the  bend  of  the  hook. 
Removal  of  the  draft  will  release  it. 

Latigo  Ties. — Overhand. — This  tie  is  shown  in  Fig.  228.  It  is 
very  simple  in  construction,  is  easily  apphed,  and  is  a  widely  used 


Clove.  Double  half  hitch  Modification  of 

with  draw  loop.  double  half  hitch. 

Fig.  228. — Latigo  ties. 


method  of  securing  a  latigo  to  the  saddle  ring.  Its  release  is 
facilitated  if  a  draw  loop  is  used. 

Double  Half  Hitch. — This  is  probably  the  most  widely  used 
of  all  latigo  ties.  It  consists  of  two  half  hitches  being  taken 
through  the  saddle  ring  and,  unless  the  latigo  leather  is  unusu- 
ally hard  and  stiff,  will  seldom  or  never  slip.  Like  the  overhand 
it  may  be  removed  with  less  difficulty  if  the  draw  loop  is  used. 

Clove  Hitch.— This  tie  is  used  about  as  often  as  the  overhand 


MISCELLANEOUS  335 

but,  unless  the  latigo  leather  is  very  soft  and  phant,  will  some- 
times slip  and  allow  the  cinch  to  work  loose.  It  should  also 
be  tied  with  a  draw  loop. 

Splices. — Splices  in  rope  may  be  either  permanent  or  tem- 
porary. They  may  be  supplied  for  the  purpose  of  fastening 
two  ropes  together  or  they  may  be  used  to  form  eyes  through 
which  other  ropes  or  eyes  are  passed. 

1.  Permanent  Splices. — A  general  method  of  making  permanent 
spUces  is  shown  in  Fig.  229.  To  do  this  the  strands  of  each 
rope  end  are  untwisted  and  if  the  splice  is  to  work  through 
tackle  blocks  a  portion  of  each  strand  may  have  to  be  cut  away 


Fig.  229. — Permanent  eye  splice. 

in  order  to  reduce  the  diameter  of  the  sphce.  A  splice  8  inches 
long  is  sufficient  for  3^-inch  rope.  Larger  rope  should  have 
proportionately  longer  splices. 

The  actual  work  of  sphcing  begins  after  each  strand  of  one 
rope  has  been  passed  through  between  two  strands  of  the  other 
and  the  tightly  twisted  portions  of  each  have  been  brought 
close  together. 

One  strand  of  the  soUd  rope  is  raised  each  time  and  a  strand 
of  the  untwisted  rope  is  passed  beneath  it,  the  rear  strand  always 
being  brought  up  first  and  drawn  tight.  The  splice  should 
terminate  with  a  loose  end  projecting  from  each  of  the  rope's 
three  sides.  These  are  cut  off  close  to  the  rope  and  the  spUce 
is  then  rolled  smooth  and  even. 

The  entire  process  will  require  considerable  practice  before  it 
can  be  successfully  followed,  but  a  careful  study  of  Fig.  229 
should  prove  of  material  assistance  to  the  beginner. 

2.  Temporary  Splices. — These  are  used  where  spHced  ropes  must 
be  taken  apart  frequently  and  may  be  made  in  a  number  of 
different  ways.     The  chief  temporary  sphces  used  are  as  follows: 

Hawser  Bend. — This  consists  of  a  loop  in  the  end  of  one  rope 
pas  ed  through  a  second  loop  in  the  other.     The  loose  ends  arc 


336   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

given  a  haK  hitch  about  and  lashed  to  the  respective  ropes  as 
shouTi  in  Fig.  230. 

Clove  and  Overhand  Splice. — This  is  also  illustrated  in  the 
same  figure  with  the  hawser  bend. 

It  consists  of  a  clove  hitch  shpped  over  the  end  of  another 
rope  bearing  an  overhand  knot  at  its  end. 

Toggle  Splice. — Fig.  230  also  shows  how  this  splice  is  con- 
structed.    A  toggle  pin  or  stick  is  fastened  into  the  end  of  one 


Hawser  bend.  Clove  and  overhand. 


Toggle.  Double  eye  Leather  spUce. 

splice. 
Fig.  230. — Splices. 

rope  and  is  passed  through  an  eye  splice  m  the  other.  The  eye 
splice  should  be  only  long  enough  to  permit  the  toggle  pin  to 
pass  through  beside  the  rope  which  carries  it. 

Double  Eye  Splice. — Ropes  fastened  together  by  means  of  this 
spUce  are  each  equipped  with  an  eye  as  shown  in  Fig.  230. 
Such  a  spUce  is  released  by  bending  the  rounded  ends  of  the 
eyes  toward  each  other. 

Leather  Splice. — Leather  straps  to  be  sphced  together  are  both 
sHt  at  one  end.  Each  strap  is  then  passed  through  the  sht  in 
the  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  230,  and  drawn  tight. 

Eye  Splices. — A  very  common  but  improper  method  of  start- 
ing an  eye  spHce  is  shown  in  Fig.  231.  By  following  such  a 
method  the  strands  of  the  loose  end  all  start  into  the  sphce  along 
one  side  of  the  rope.  This  leaves  a  very  unsatisfactory  con- 
nection that  does  not  fit  closely  into  the  sphce.  The  proper 
method  of  starting  the  splice  is  also  shown  in  Fig.  231,  where  the 
three  strands  each  enter  the  splice  at  difTerent  sides.  This  may 
leave  one  strand  rather  higher  than  the  others  at  the  end  of 
the  sphce  but  the  eye  is  substantially  made  and  is  generally 
satisfactory.  After  the  strands  have  been  started  they  are 
passed  through  between  the  others  the  same  as  in  splicing  two 


MISCELLANEOUS  337 

ropes  together.  The  same  method  is  also  followed  when  one 
rope  is  to  be  spliced  into  the  side  of  another.  Except  in  the 
matter  of  keeping  up  the  extra  strands  ropes  having  more  than 


Incorrect  method  of  starting  an  eye  splice. 


Correct  method. 
Fig.  231. 

three  strands  are  sphced  the  same  as  those  having  only  three. 
Temporary  eye  spUces  may  be  made  the  same  as  the  hawser 
bend.     This  same  spUce  is  frequently  used  in  wire  cables. 

Flat  Ends  in  Leather. — This  method  of  fastening  the  ends  of 
leather  strands  is  employed  chiefly  in  reatas  and  similar  leather 
articles  and  presents  a  flat,  compact  end  that  does  not  carry 
a  large,  inconvenient  knot.  As  the  illustration  shows,  the  lower 
strand  of  the  series  is  spHt  each  time,  remaining  strands,  regard- 


FiG.  2.32. — Flat  end  for  leather  strands. 

less  of  their  number,  are  passed  through  it,  after  which  each  in 
its  turn  is  spht  in  a  similar  manner  as  it  reaches  the  bottom  of 
the  series.     Finally,  at  the  extreme  end  in  a  series  of  four  strands. 


338   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

only  the  second  and  third  strands  from  the  top  are  passed  through 
the  bottom  strand,  thus  permitting  two  strands  to  emerge  from 
each  side  of  the  flat  end.  If  six  or  eight  strands  are  used  then 
three  or  four  strands,  respectively,  are  passed  through  the  sht. 
Or,  as  is  often  done,  all  the  remaining  strands  may  be  passed 
through  the  slit  and  the  fiat  end  will  still  be  left  fiat  and  compact. 

FIELD    WORK    IN    THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS  ^ 

Field  work  in  the  PhiUppine  Islands  demands  different  equip- 
ment than  that  required  in  the  United  States.  This  is  due  to  a 
number  of  facts,  chief  among  which  are:  (1)  The  cUmate  is 
warmer  and  damper;  (2)  traveling  through  the  forests  is  done  on 
foot  rather  than  by  horse;  (3)  men  instead  of  animals  are  em- 
ployed in  packing;  (4)  there  is  no  lack  of  laborers;  (5)  the 
days  are  about  twelve  hours  long  the  j^ear  round. 

Rains  occur  almost  daily  between  June  and  December,  but 
as  a  rule  continue  only  a  short  time  and  generally  occur  after 
noon.  During  this  season,  however,  typhoons,  or  hard  rains 
with  severe  winds  lasting  from  three  to  seven  days  may  be 
expected.  Extreme  heat  generally  prevails  throughout  May. 
The  chief  trouble  experienced  during  the  rainy  season  is  keeping 
equipment  and  suppUes  in  good  condition  and  preventing  them 
from  becoming  moldy. 

A  hght  tarpauUn  may  be  carried,  but  is  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary, as  the  native  woodsmen  possess  a  skill  in  erecting  shelters 
of  rattan  or  bejuco  leaves  which  renders  them  almost  rain-proof. 
These  shelters  may  be  constructed  in  a  very  few  minutes. 

Clothing  should  consist  of  strong  but  light  trousers,  Hght 
underwear,  and  a  medium  weight  woolen  shirt  such  as  is  used 
in  the  army.  Even  on  short  trips  the  equipment  should  include 
one  or  two  extra  suits  of  underwear,  as  the  climate  induces  con- 
siderable perspiration  and  the  traveler  may  become  chilly  late 
in  the  evening  unless  dry  underwear  is  available.  Several  pairs 
of  medium  weight  woolen  socks  should  also  be  included  in  the 
outfit  and  it  is  always  well  to  carry  an  extra  pair  of  shoes,  pref- 
erably of  canvas  with  substantial  leather  soles.  Rubber  boots 
or  shoes  are  to  be  avoided  an  account  of  the  warm  climate. 
Hats  should  be  of  the  wide-brimmed  felt  variety  and  as  Hght 
as  possible. 

^  Contributed  by  Forest  Ranger  Wayne  Russell. 


MISCELLANEOUS  339 

A  woolen  blanket  on  an  ordinary  army  cot  is  sufficient  for 
bedding,  but  the  entire  bed  should  be  covered  with  a  good  mos- 
quito bar.  Very  few  poisonous  snakes  are  encountered.  Leeches 
are  found  in  most  localities  and  in  general  appearance  resemble 
those  of  the  States,  but  they  inhabit  wet  grass  instead  of  stag- 
nant pools.  They  seldom  appear  in  the  lower  altitudes  during 
the  dry  seasons,  but  maj'  be  found  as  low  as  500  feet  above 
sea-level  during  the  rainy  season.  The  natives  of  the  Province 
of  Tayabas,  which  is  the  worst  infected  district,  carrj^  soap  or 
grease  wdth  them  on  extended  trips  and  rub  this  on  the  leeches 
if  any  attach  themselves  to  the  travelers'  legs  or  feet.  This 
causes  them  to  drop  off.  Persons  wearing  shoes  and  leggings 
are  seldom  troubled  with  this  pest. 

Deer  and  wild  hogs  are  numerous  and  several  varieties  of  wild 
doves  provide  excellent  fresh  meat.  Chickens  and  eggs  may 
be  procured  at  most  villages.  The  former  are  transported  alive 
by  the  native  packers,  are  *'  staked  out  "  at  night  by  being 
tied  to  a  stake  or  bush,  and  are  killed  and  dressed  as 
required. 

A  fern  called  paco  and  a  rattan  blossom  known  as  palasan 
may  be  found  in  most  sections,  and  both  are  edible.  Very  little 
of  the  wild  fruit  is  fit  to  eat.  Tame  fruit,  such  as  pineapples 
and  bananas,  should  not  be  eaten  at  a  time  when  great  hunger 
is  experienced,  or  cramps  or  other  internal  disorders  will  inva- 
riably result.  Wild  honey  occurs  in  abundance,  but  is  found 
suspended  from  a  large  branch  or  tree-trunk  rather  than  in 
hollow  Umbs  and  trunks. 

Rice  and  dried  fish  constitute  the  principal  foods,  and  after 
the  traveler  once  becomes  accustomed  to  the  native  method  of 
preparation  these  prove  quite  palatable  to  him.  All  foods  should 
be  eaten  while  warm  and  the  use  of  canned  foods  should  be 
avoided  whenever  this  is  possible. 

Few  cooking  utensils  are  necessary,  since  the  native  packers 
can  soon  produce  cups,  saucers,  plates,  dippers,  and  other  similar 
articles  from  a  bamboo  called  cana  bojo.  Rice  and  such  foods 
are  prepared  in  earthen  jars.  The  traveler  may,  if  he  prefers, 
carry  a  limited  number  of  dishes  for  his  owti  use,  but  the  packers 
prefer  to  eat  from  leaves.  Coffee  may  be  prepared  by  pouring 
boiling  water  into  a  flannel  sack  partly  filled  with  ground  coffee. 
Bad  water  will  be  found  quite  frequently,  and  for  that  reason 
a  canteen  of   good   drinking   water   should  always  be  carried. 


340   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Cigarettes  should  be  carried  for  the  packers  and  they  are  always 
willing  to  have  their  pay  reduced  accordingly. 

Quinine  and  disinfectants  should  always  be  carried  in  the 
pack,  as  should  also  a  good  cramp  remedy.  A  few  bandages 
might  also  be  included,  but  beyond  this  little  else  is  required 
in  the  way  of  medicinal  equipment. 

The  packers  work  singly  or  in  pairs  and  the  pack  is  suspended 
from  a  pole  known  as  a  pingon,  which  rests  on  the  packers'  shoul- 
ders as  the  pack  is  carried  between  them.  Packs  for  one  man 
may  weigh  from  twenty-five  to  forty  pounds;  for  two  men  from 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds.  Guides, 
or  guias,  expect  to  carry  their  own  camp  outfit. 

The  native  packers  have  more  respect  for  and  are  more  def- 
erential to  travelers  who  require  them  to  do  all  the  Vy^ork.  They 
should  be  reprimanded  only  when  this  is  absolutely  imperative, 
and  there  should  be  no  reference  made  to  the  matter  later. 
Their  attention  and  respect  may  be  obtained  only  by  firmness 
and  dignity  and  no  famiharity  from  them  or  the  interpreter 
should  be  tolerated.  Neither  should  impHcit  confidence  be 
placed  in  the  latter  unless  previous  experience  and  acquaintance 
with  him  justify  it. 


APPENDIX 


ADMINISTRATIVE   DISTRICTSi 
U.  S.  Forest  Service 


District  Number  1. — Headquarters  ISIissoula,  ISIontana 

2.— 

Denver,  Colorado 

3.— 

Albuquerque,  New  Mexico 

4.— 

Ogden,  Utah 

5.— 

San  Francisco,  CaUfomia 

6.— 

Portland,  Oregon 

7.— 

Washington,  D.  C. 

FOREST  SUPERVISORS'  HEADQUARTERS^ 


State 

Dist. 
No. 

Name  of 
Forest 

Supervisors'  Headquarters 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

CaUfomia .... 

6 
6 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 

7 

7 

5 
5 
5 
6 
5 

Chugach 

Tongass 

Apache 

Chiricahua. .  .  . 

Coconino 

Coronado 

Crook 

Dixie 

ISIanzano 

Kaibab 

Prescott 

Sitgreaves 

Tonto 

Tusayan 

Arkansas 

Ozark 

Angeles 

CaUfomia 

Cleveland ..... 

Crater 

Eldorado 

Ketchikan 
Ketchikan 

SpringerviUe 

Portal 

Flagstaff 

Tucson 

Safford 

St.  George,  Utah 

Albuquerque,  New  Mexico 

Kanab,  Utah 

Prescott 

Snowflake 

Roosevelt 

WilUams 

Hot  Springs 
Harrison 

Los  Angeles 
WiUows 
Escondido 
Medford,  Oregon 
Placerville 

Compiled  from  The  Use  Book,  191.5. 
341 


342        HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

FOREST  SUPERVISORS'  HEADQUARTERS   (Continued) 


State 


Dist. 
No. 


Name  of 
Forest 


Supervisors*  Headquarters 


California . 


Colorado . 


Florida . 
Idaho. . 


Inyo 

Klamath 

Lassen 

Modoc 

Mono 

Monterey 

Plimias 

Santa  Barbara 

Sequoia 

Shasta 

Sierra 

Siskiyou 

Stanislaus 

Tahoe 

Trinity 

Arapaho 

Battlement. . .  . 
Cochetopa . .  .  . 

Colorado 

Dvirango 

Giinnison 

Hayden , 

Holy  Cross. .  . 

La  Sal 

LeadviUe .  .  .  .  , 
Montezuma . .  . 

Pike 

Rio  Grande .  .  . 

Routt 

San  Isabel .  .  .  . 

San  Juan 

Sopris 

Uncompahgre 
White  River, . , 

Florida 

Boise 

Cache 

Caribou 

ChaUis 

Clearwater. .  . 
Coeur  d'Alene 


Bishop 

Yreka 

Red  Bluff 

Alturas 

Gardnerville,  Nevada 

Big  Sur 

Quincy 

Santa  Barbara 

Hot  Springs 

Sisson 

Northfork 

Grant's  Pass,  Oregon 

Sonora 

Nevada  City 

Weaverville 

Hot  Sulphur  Springs 

CoUbran 

Saguache 

Fort  Collins 

Durango 

Gunnison 

Encampment,  Wyoming 

Glenwood  Springs 

Moab,  Utah 

LeadviUe 

Mancos 

Denver 

Monte  Vista 

Steamboat  Springs 

WestcUflfe 

Pagosa  Springs 

Aspen 

Delta 

Meeker 

Pensacola 

Boise 

Logan,  Utah 
MontpeUer 
ChalUs 
Orofino 
Coeur  d'Alene 


APPENDIX  343 

FOREST  SUPERVISORS'  HEADQUARTERS    (Continued) 


State 

Dist. 
No. 

Name  of 
Forest 

Supervisors'   Headquarters 

Idaho 

4 

Idaho 

McCall 

1 

Kaniksu 

Newport,  Washington 

4 

Lemhi 

JMackay 

4 

Mmidoka 

Oakley 

1 

Nezperce 

Grangeville 

4 

Palisade 

St.  Anthony 

4 

Payette 

Emmett 

1 

Pend  Oreille. .  . 

Sandpoint 

1 

St.  Joe 

St.  Maries 

4 

Salmon 

Salmon 

4 

Sawtooth 

Hailey 

1 

Selway 

Kooskia 

4 

Targhee 

St.  Anthony 

4 

Weiser 

Weiser 

Kansas 

2 

Kansas 

Garden  City 

IMichigan 

2 

Michigan 

East  Tawas 

Minnesota 

2 

Minnesota .... 

Cass  Lake 

2 

Superior 

Ely 

Montana 

Absaroka 

Livingston 

Beartooth 

Bilhngs 

Beaverhead ,  . . 

Dillon 

Bltterroot 

Missoula 

Blackfeet 

Kahspell 

Cabinet 

Thompson  FaUs 

Custer 

MUes  City 

Deerlodge 

Anaconda 

Flathead 

Kahspell 

GaUatin 

Bozeman 

Helena 

Helena 

Jefferson 

Great  Falls 

Kootenai 

Libby 

Lewis  &  Clark 

Chouteau 

Lolo 

IVIissoula 

Madison 

Sheridan 

Missoula 

INIissoula 

Sioux. 

Camp  Crook,  South  Dakota 
Halsey 

Nebraska 

2 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

5 

Eldorado 

Placer ville,  CaUfornia 

344        HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 

FOREST  SUPERVISORS'  HEADQUARTERS    (Continued) 


State 


Nevada . 


New  Mexico . 


North  Dakota 
Oklahoma .  .  .  . 
Oregon 


Porto  Rico. . . 
South  Dakota 


Dist. 

No. 


Name  of 

Forest 


Humboldt . 

Inyo 

Mono 

Nevada. .  .  . 

Ruby 

Santa  Rosa . 

Tahoe 

Toiyabe.  .  . 


Alamo 

Carson .... 
Chiricahua . 

Datil 

GUa 

Lincohi .... 
Manzano.  . 
Santa  Fe.  .  , 


Dakota . 
Wichita. 


Cascade.  . 
Crater. .  . . 
Deschutes. 
Fremont . . 
Ivlamath. . 
Malheur . . 
Minam.  .  . 
Ochoco. . . 
Oregon.  .  . 
Santiam.  . 
Siskiyou.  . 
Siuslaw . . . 
Umatilla .  . 
Umpqua . . 
WaUowa . . 
Wenaha.  . 
Whitman . 

Luquillo .  . 


Black  Hills. 
Harney .... 
Sioux 


Supervisors'  Headquarters 


Gold  Creek 

Bishop,  California 

GardnerviUe 

Ely 

Deeth 

Paradise 

Nevada  City,  CaUfomia 

Aiistin 

Alamogordo 

Taos 

Portal,  Arizona 

Magdalena 

Silver  City 

Capitan 

Albuquerque 

Santa  Fe 

Camp  Crook,  South  Dakota 

Cache 

Eugene 

Medford 

Bend 

Lakeview 

Yreka,  CaUfomia 

John  Day 

Wallowa 

PrinevUle 

Portland 

Albany 

Grant's  Pass 

Eugene 

Pendleton 

Roseburg 

Wallowa 

WaUa  Walla,  Washington 

Sumpter 


Deadwood 
Custer 
Camp  Crook 


APPENDIX  345 

FOREST    SUPERVISORS'   HEADQUARTERS    (Continued) 


State 


Dist. 
No. 


Name  of 
Forest 


Supervisors'  Headquarters 


Utah. 


Washington. 


Wyoming , 


Ashley 

Cache 

Dixie 

Fillmore 

Fisklake 

La  Sal 

Manti 

Minidoka. ,  .  . 

PoweU 

Sevier 

Uinta 

Wasatch 

Chelan 

Colimibia.  .  .  . 

ColviUe 

Kanik.su 

Okanogan, ,  .  . 

Olympic 

Ramier 

Snoqualmie.  . 
Washington,  . 

Wenaha 

Wenatchee . .  . 

Ashley 

Bighorn  

Bonne\alle .  .  . 

Bridger 

Caribou 

Hayden 

IVIedicine  Bow 

PaUsade 

Shoshone. . . . 

Targhee 

Teton 

Washakie .... 
Wyommg .... 


Vernal 

Logan 

St.  George 

Richfield 

Salina 

Moab 

Ephraim 

Oakley,  Idaho 

Escalante 

Panguitch 

I*rovo 

Salt  Lake  City 

Chelan 

Portland,  Oregon 

Repubhc 

Newport 

Okanogan 

Olympia 

Tacoma 

Seattle 

BeUingham 

WaUa  WaUa 

Leavenworth 

Vernal,  Utah 

Sheridan 

Lander 

Pinedale 

ISIontpeUer,  Idaho 

Encampment 

Laramie 

St.  Anthony,  Idaho 

Cody 

St.  Anthony,  Idaho 

Jackson 

Lander 

Afton 


346        HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND   WOODSMEN 
LANDS  ACQUIRED  UNDER  THE  WEEKS  LAW» 


State  and  Area 

Headquarters 

Georgia: 

Georgia  area 

Blue  Ridge 

Savannah  (South) 

Clayton 

New  Hampshire: 

White  Mountain 

Gorham 

North  CaroUna: 

Mount  MitcheU 

Marion 

Nantahala 

Andrews 

Pisgah 

AsheviUe 

Savannah  (North) 

Highlands 

South  Carolina: 

Savannah  (South) 

Clayton,  Georgia 

Tennessee : 

Cherokee 

Etowah 

Smoky  Mountain 

Townsend 

Unaka 

Johnson  City 

WMte  Top  (part) 

Abingdon,  Virginia 

Virginia: 

Massanutten 

Woodstock 

Natural  Bridge 

Buena  Vista 

Potomac  (part) 

Woodstock 

Shenandoah  (part) 

Harrisonburg 

White  Top  (part) 

Abingdon 

West  Vu-ginia: 

Monongahela 

Elkins 

Potomac  (part) 

Woodstock,  Virginia 

Shenandoah  (part) 

Harrisonburg,  Virginia 

Compiled  from  The  Use  Book,  1915. 


WEIGHTS 

AVOIRDUPOIS 

Used 

in  weighing  practically  all  heavy  articles. 

27 .  34375  Grains      =  1  Dram 

16 

Drams     =  1  Oimce 

16 

Ounces     =  1  Pound 

14 

Pounds    =  1  Stone        (An  English  measure  of  weight  and 

used  chiefly  in  reference  to  the  weight 

of  a  person.) 

100 

Povmds    =  1  Hundredweight  (Cwt.) 

20 

Cwts.       =  1  Ton 

2240 

Poimds    =  1  Long  Ton 

Note. 

— 1  poimd  Avoirdupois    =   1.21528  pounds  Apothecaries'  or 

Troy  weight. 

APPENDIX  •  347 


TROY 

Used  in  weighing  precious  metals  and  stones. 

3.2  Grains  =  1  Carat  (K) 

24      Grains  =  1  Pennyweight  (Dwt) 

20       Dwts  =  1  Ounce 

12      Ounces  =  1  Pound 

APOTHECARIES' 
Used  in  weighing  medicines  and  drugs. 

20  Grains  =  1  Scruple 

3  Scruples  =  1  Dram 

8  Drams  =  1  Ounce 

12  Ounces  =  1  Pound 

MEASURES 

SURVEYORS' 

Used  in  measuring  lands. 

LINEAR 

7 .  92  Inches      =  1  Link 
100        Links       =  1  Chain  (Gunter's) 
80        Chains     =  1  :MUe  (Land) 

SQUARE 

10  Sq.  Chains    =  1  Acre  (A) 
640  Acres  =  1  Section 

LONG  MEASURE 
Used  in  measuring  distances  or  lengths. 


6 

Points 

=  1  Line 

12 

Lines 

=  1  Inch 

3 

Inches 

=  1  Palm 

3 

Palms 

=  1  Span,  or  9  Inches 

4 

Inches 

=  1  Hand 

3 

Hands 

=  1  Foot,  or  12  Inches 

3 

Feet 

=  1  Yard 

2 

Yards 

=  1  Fathom 

5> 

^  Yards 

=  1  Rod      (Also  known  as  "Perch 

40 

Rods 

=  1  Furlong,  or  i^-ISIile,  Land 

{20 

Rods 

=  1  Mile,  Land,  or  5,280  Feet 

3 

Miles 

=  1  League 

and  "Pole.") 


Note. — A  Knot,  or  Nautical  or  Sea  Mile,  or  a  Geographical  :Mile 
=  6,080.27  Feet. 


1728  Cu. 

Inches 

24.75  Cu. 

Feet 

27  Cu. 

Feet 

128  Cu. 

Feet 

348   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

SQUARE  MEASURE 

Used  in  measuring  surfaces. 

144  Sq.  Inches  =  1  Sq.  Foot 

9  Sq.  Feet  =  1  Sq.  Yard 

30.25  Sq.  Yards  =  1  Sq.  Rod 

160  Sq.  Rods  =  1  Acre  (10  Sq.  Chains) 

640  Acres  =  1  Section 

CUBIC  MEASURE 

Used  in  measuring  bodies  having  length,  breadth  and  thickness. 

=  1  Cu.  Foot 

=  1  Perch,  a  measure  of  stone  16  Ji  feet  long,  IH 

feet  wide  and  1  foot  thick. 
=  1  Cu.    Yard,    generally    considered    a   reasonable 

load  of  sand  or  gravel  for  a  two-horse  team. 
=  1  Cord,   a  measure  of  wood  8  feet  long,  4  feet 

high  and  4  feet  wide. 

DRY  MEASURE 

Used  in  measuring  vegetables,  grain,  etc. 

2  Pints       =  1  Quart 

8  Quarts   =  1  Peck,  or  2  Gallons 

4  Pecks  =  1  Bushel,  or  2 150 .  42  Cu.  Inches  per  "  struck  "  or  "  stricken" 
or  leveled  bushel.  The  "cone"  of  a  "heaped" 
bushel  is  not  less  than  6  inches  high  and  this  measure 
=  1}4  struck  bushels. 

LIQUID  MEASURE 

Used  in  measuring  Hquids. 

4  Gills  =  1  Pint  (Pt.) 

2  Pints  =  1  Quart  (Qt.) 

4  Quarts  =  1  Gallon  (Gal.) 

32  Gallons  =  1  Barrel  (Bbl.)  (In  most  localities) 

2  Barrels  =  1  Hogshead 
2  Hogsheads    =  1  Butt  or  Pipe 

2  Butts  =  1  Tun 

APOTHECARIES'   OR  WINE  MEASURE 

Used  in  measuring  hquid  medicines,  wines,  etc. 

60  ISIinims  (M)  =1  Fluid  Dram  (f  3  ) 

8  Drams  =  1  Fluid  Ounce  (f  3  ) 

16  Ounces  =  1  Pint  (O) 

8  Pints  =  1  Gallon  (Cong:  Abbreviation  for  Congius) 


APPENDIX  349 

SPOON  AND   CUP  MEASUREMENTS 

This  table  gives  only  approximate  amounts  of  medicines  con- 
tained in  teaspoons,  tablespoons,  and  cups.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  these  articles  may  vary  in  size  and  that  this  table 
has  reference  only  to  those  of  average  size.  Liquids  are  meas- 
ured in  drops,  minims,  drams,  and  fluid  ounces;  powders  are 
measured  in  grains,  drams,  and  ounces. 


1 

Drop                                        =  1  ISIinim 

60 

Minims  or  Drops                   =  1  Dram 

1 

Dram                                       =  1  Teaspoonful 

4 

Drams                                     =  1  Tablespoonful 

1 

Drop                                        =  1  Grain 

60 

Grains,  Tvlinims  or  Drops   =  1  Dram 

8 

Drams                                     =  1  Fluid  Oimce 

1 

^  Fluid  Ounce                           =  1  Tablespoonful 

16 

Fluid  Ounces                         =  1  Pint 

1 

Pint                                          =  2  Cups 

WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES   OF  GRAIN,  HAY,  SEED, 
AND   VEGETABLES 

Local  conditions  are  often  responsible  for  local  acceptance  of 
weights  and  measures  of  hay  and  grain  that  are  not  standard 
elsewhere.  Thus,  in  Kansas  and  other  portions  of  the  middle 
West,  where  cUmatic  conditions  are  more  favorable  to  its  pro- 
duction, corn  is  often  measured  "  by  the  ear,"  120  average  size 
ears  constituting  a  bushel.  But  in  most  parts  of  the  South, 
where  com  is  generally  of  smaller  ears  or  inferior  quaUty,  125 
and  in  some  instances  130  ears  are  accepted  as  a  bushel. 

Eighty  ears  of  selected  corn  constitute  a  bushel  in  the  lower 
Missouri  valley. 

Two  cubic  feet  of  ear  corn  will  make  about  one  bushel  when 
shelled. 

Wheat  is  often  "  tested  "  and  sold  by  "  test."  The  standard 
bushel  of  wheat  weighs  60  pounds,  although  a  test  may  show 
that  it  weighs  considerably  more  or  less  per  2150.42  cubic  inches. 
The  testing  machine  consists  of  a  specially  constructed  scale 
which  shows  the  weight  of  a  given  quantity,  and  the  weight  of 
a  bushel  of  such  grain  is  then  determined  from  the  figures  thus 
secured. 

Hay  is  sold  by  measure  or  weight.  Loose  hay  varies  in  bulk, 
but  when   moderately  well  packed   averages  about   500  cubic 


350   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

feet  per  ton.  From  28  to  34  bales  of  alfaKa  constitute  a  ton 
among  buyers  and  sellers  in  the  West,  and  from  30  to  33  bales 
of  timothy  or  clover  are  considered  a  ton  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  South  and  Southeast,  although  in  some  sections  of  the 
South  16  bales  of  timothy  or  clover  weigh  a  ton. 

A  bushel,  as  the  term  is  used  in  the  following  table,  contains 
2150.42  cubic  inches  or  approximately  1.24  cubic  feet,  and  fiUs  a 
cube  approximately  12.91  inches  in  each  dimension  or  a  cylinder 
8  inches  deep  and  183^  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  various  States  have  not  adopted  a  standard  measure  for 
different  commodities,  but  this  lack  of  uniformity  is  doubtless 
justified  by  difference  in  local  conditions.  The  following  table 
however  will  be  found  applicable  to  most  sections: 

Pounds 
Commodity  per 

Bushel 

Alfalfa  seed 60 

Barley,  whole 48 

Beans,  Uma 56 

Beans,  navy 60 

Beets 55 

Blue  grass  seed,  Kentucky 14 

Brome  grass  seed 14 

Broom  com  seed 46 

Buckwheat 50-52 

Canada  field  peas 60 

Cane  seed 50 

Clover  seed,  aU  varieties 60 

Com,  field  or  Indian,  ears 70 

Com,  field  or  Indian,  sheUed 56 

Com,  sweet 46 

Cow  peas 60 

Emmer  seed 40 

Flax  seed 56 

Hemp  seed 44 

Johnson  grass  seed 25 

Kaffir  com 56 

Meadow  fescue  seed 24 

MUlet  seed,  common  and  German 50 

Millet  seed,  Hungarian 48 

Millet  seed,  Japanese 35 

MiUet  seed,  Siberian 50 

Oat  grass  seed,  tall 14 

Oats 32 

Onion  sets,  bottom 32 

Onion  sets,  top 28 

Orchard  grass  seed 14 

Peanuts 22 


APPENDIX 


351 


Pounds 

Commodity  per 

Bushel 

Peas,  garden,  wrinkled 56 

Potatoes,  Irish 60 

Potatoes,  sweet 50 

Rape 60 

Red  top  grass  seed 14 

Rye 56 

Rye  grass  seed,  Italian 24 

Rye  grass  seed,  perennial 24 

Sheep  fescue 14 

Sorghum  seed 45 

Soy  beans 60 

Speltz 40 

Simflower  seed,  Riissian 24 

Timothy  seed 45 

Turnips 55 

Vetch,  hairy 60 

Vetch,  spring 60 

Wheat 60 

PER  CENT  MEASUREMENT  OF  GRADES 


The  grade,  or  inclination,  of  roads,  trails,  and  railroads  is  usu- 
ally expressed  in  per  cent  and  is  determined  by  the  relation  of 
the  perpendicular  distance  to 
the  horizontal  distance  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tion. It  will  be  observed  that 
although  there  is  a  definite  re- 
lation between  the  degrees  and 
the  per  cent  of  a  grade,  these 
are  two  separate  quantities. 
A  20  per  cent  grade  equals  a  ver- 
tical angle  of  approximately  11 
degrees,  but  a  vertical  angle  of 
45  degrees,  or  a  rise  of  100  feet 
in  a  horizontal  distance  of  100 
feet,  which  equals  a  100  per  cent 

grade,  is  not  a  perpendicular,  as  might  at  first  be  supposed, 
page  354,  Appendix. 

A  very  common  and  wholly  inexcusable  error  often  made  by 
amateur  road-  or  trail-builders  is  to  assume  that  a  3  per  cent 
grade,  for  instance,  is  a  rise  of  3  inches  in  a  horizontal  distance 
of  12  inches.     Such  a  grade  is  of  course  a  25  per  cent  grade. 


Fig.  23.3. 


100  Feet 

-Per  cent  grade. 


See 


352   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 
MISCELLANEOUS  WEIGHTS 


Commodity 


Weight  in  Pounds 


Average 
per  M.  Ft. 


Ash  (lumber)^ 

Brick,2  soft 

Brick,  hard 

Brick,  pressed 

Cast  iron 

Cast  steel 

Cement,^  natm*al 

Cement,  Portland 

Charcoal,  oak 

Charcoal,  pine 

Coal,  anthracite,  loose 

Coal,  bituminous,  loose .  .  .  . 

Coke,  loose 

Dirt,  loose,  dry  loam 

Dirt,  packed,  dry  loam .  .  .  . 

Dirt,  loose,  wet  loam 

Dirt,  packed,  wet  loam .  .  .  . 

Feldspar 

Flint 

Gneiss,  soUd 

Gneiss,  crushed 

Granite,  soUd 

Granite,  crushed 

Gravel 

Hemlock  (lumber) 

Hickory  (lumber) 

Ice 

Lead 

Limestone,  soUd 

Limestone,  crushed 

Maple  (lumber) 

Marble,  soUd 

ISIarble,  crushed 

Oak  (lumber)  black 

Oak  (lumber)  Uve 

Oak  (lumber)  red 

Oak  (lumber)  white 

Peat 

Pine  (lumber)  white  yeUow 
Pine  (lumber)  white 


3,915 


100 
425 


3,350 


600 
500 
600 
500 

500 
000 


APPENDIX 
MISCELLANEOUS  WEIGHTS   (Continued) 


353 


Weight  in  Pounds 


Commodity 


Quartz,  solid 

Quartz,  crushed 

Quicklime* 

Salt 

Sand,  dry  quartz 

Sandstone,  solid 

Sandstone,  crushed.  .  , 

Slate 

Snow,  fresh  dry 

Snow,  wet 

Soapstone 

Spruce  (Imnber) 

Steel 

Sycamore  (limiber) .  .  . . 

Tar 

Tin 

Trap,  solid 

Trap,  crushed 

Turf 

Walnut,  black  (lumber) 

Water,  fresh 

Water,  salt 


^  Figures  referring  to  weights  of  lumber  apply  only  to  weU-seasoned 
material  which  is  perfectly  dry.  To  secure  approximate  weights  of 
green  lumber  add  from  ^/^  to  V2  the  weight  of  dry  lumber,  according 
to  the  degree  of  seasoning.  The  prevalent  idea  that  1,000  board  feet 
must  weigh  the  same  as  a  sohd  body  of  83  }i  cubic  feet  of  lumber  is 
erroneous  by  reason  of  the  loss  in  sawing,  nearly  all  lumber  being  cut 
from  H-  to  M-inch  scant,  but  measiired  full.  Crushed  stone  weighs 
less  per  cubic  foot  than  sohd  stone,  the  decrease  in  weight  being  due 
to  the  numerous  voids  between  the  fragments.  Sand  consisting  of 
coarse  and  fine  grains  weighs  more  per  cubic  foot  than  when  the  grains 
are  more  nearly  uniform  in  size;  the  finer  grains  fill  the  voids  between 
the  larger  grains,  and  thus  tend  to  form  a  more  compact  mass.  The 
weight  of  salt  and  ice  depends  upon  the  porosity  and  the  amount  of 
foreign  material  present.  Salt  water  outweighs  fresh  water  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  salt  held  in  solution. 

^  22  bricks,  with  mortar,  in  a  cubic  foot  of  masonry.  Standard  brick, 
2x4x8  inches,  scant. 

3  Natural  cement.  300,  and  Portland,  380  pounds  per  barreL 

^  66  Pounds  per  bushel. 


354       HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND   WOODSMEN 

RELATION  OF  DEGREES  AND  PER  CENT 

All  road,  trail,  or  railroad  surveys  of  grades  are  expressed  in 
per  cent,  while  curves  are  expressed  in  degrees.  For  example: 
A  10  per  cent  grade  rises  10  feet  in  a  horizontal  distance  of  100 
feet,  while  a  3-degree  curve  has  a  horizontal  deflection  of  3 
degrees. 

These  points  should  be  remembered  and  care  taken  not  to 
confuse  the  two  terms.  The  following  table  shows  the  relation 
they  bear  to  each  other: 


Degrees 

Per  Cent 

Degrees 

Per  Cent 

Degrees 

Per  Cent 

1 

1.74 

3.49 

5.24 

6.99 

8.75 

10.51 

12.28 

14.05 

15.84 

17.63 

19.44 

21.26 

23.09 

24.93 

26.80 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

28.67 
30.57 
32.49 
34.43 
36.40 
38.39 
40.40 
42.45 
44.52 
46.63 
48.77 
50.95 
53.17 
55.43 
57.73 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

60.10 

2 

62.49 

3 

64.94 

4 

67.45 

5 

70.02 

6 

72.65 

7 

75.35 

8 

78.14 

9    

80.98 

10 

83.90 

11 

86.93 

12 

90.04 

13 

93.25 

14 

96.57 

15       

100.00 

TO  ASCERTAIN  GRADES  WITHOUT  A   GRADOMETER 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  one  method  of  deter- 
mining a  grade  when  no  gradometer  is  available.  A  10-foot 
pole  is  used.  One  end  is  allowed  to  rest  on  the  ground  and 
the  other  end  is  held  at  a  point  which  leaves  the  pole  horizontal. 
The  vertical  distance  from  the  high  end  to  the  ground  is  then 
secured  and  when  multiplied  by  ten  gives  the  per  cent  of  the 
grade.  An  average  of  several  such  measurements  taken  at 
diiTerent  points  on  a  grade  will  give  the  approximate  per  cent 
of  grade  over  the  entire  route. 

In  case  no  spirit-level  is  available  for  levehng  the  pole,  a  very 
satisfactory  substitute  may  be  had  by  the  use  of  a  bottle  filled 
with  water,   tightly   corked,    and   attached   to  the  pole  about 


APPENDIX 


355 


midway  between  the  ends.  The  pole  may  be  assumed  to  be 
approximately  horizontal  when  the  air-bubble  in  the  bottle 
remains  stationary  at  or  near  the  middle  of  the  bottle. 


SAG   TABLES 

Pole  Lines. — The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  sag 
to  be  allowed  for  in  hanging  No.  9  or  No.  12  galvanized  wire 
for  telephone  lines.  An  extra  allowance  of  2  inches  should  be 
made  if  No.  12  hard-drawn  copper  wire  is  used. 


Temp.,  F. 


-30°      -10°        10' 


30°  60 


80° 


100° 


Length 
of  Span, 
in  Feet 


Sag,  in  Inches 


75. 
100. 
115. 
130. 
150. 
1761 
300. 
400. 
500. 


1.0 

1.5 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.5 

5.5 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0 

5.5 

7.0 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.5 

7.0 

8.5 

4.5 

5.0 

6.0 

7.0 

9.0 

11.5 

6.0 

7.0 

8.0 

9.5 

12.0 

15.0 

22.0 

25.5 

29.5 

33.0 

42.5 

49.0 

43.0 

48.5 

54.5 

60.0 

78.0 

84.0 

72.0 

84.0 

90.0 

96.0 

114.0 

132.0 

4.5 

7.0 

9.0 

11.0 

14.0 

18.0 

55.0 

96.0 

150.0 


1  Length    of  standard  span  used   by  the  Forest   Service, 
page  358. 


See   top 


Tree  Lines. — Greater  sag  must  be  allowed  in  lines  hung  on 
trees  and  should  be  not  less  than  shown  below  for  wires  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing  table. 


356   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Temp.,  F. 

-30° 

-10° 

10° 

30° 

60° 

80° 

100° 

Length  of 
Span,  in  Feet 

Sag. 

in  Inches 

75 

25.0 

25.5 

25.5 

26.0 

26.5 

27.0 

28.5 

100 

26.0 

26.5 

27.5 

27.5 

28.5 

29.5 

31.0 

115 

26.5 

27.0 

27.5 

28.0 

29.5 

31.0 

33.0 

130 

27.5 

28.0 

28.5 

29.5 

31.0 

32.5 

35.0 

150 

28.5 

29.0 

30.0 

31.0 

33.0 

35.5 

38.0 

1761 

30.0 

31.0 

32.0 

33.5 

36.0 

39.0 

42.0 

300 

46.0 

49.5 

53.5 

57.0 

66.5 

73.0 

79.0 

400 

66.0 

72.0 

84.0 

90.0 

102.0 

108.0 

120.0 

500 

96.0 

108.0 

114.0 

120.0 

138.0 

156.0 

174.0 

1  Length  of  standard  span  used  by  the  Forest  Service. 
TO   ASCERTAIN   DISTANT  ELEVATIONS 

The  following  table  indicates  the  difference  in  altitude  between 
distant  points  and  the  point  from  which  observations  are  taken. 
It  makes  allowance  for  refraction,  cm-vature  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and  43^  feet  as  the  height  of  the  instrument  used  in  taking 
observations.  The  difference  in  altitude  indicated  should,  of 
course,  be  added  to  the  altitude  of  the  point  from  which  observa- 
tions are  taken  if  the  reading  is  to  include  elevation  above  sea- 
level;  otherwise  the  reading  will  cover  only  the  difTerence  in 
elevation  between  the  point  observed  and  the  one  from  which 
observations  are  made. 


Distance,  in 
Miles 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6          7 

8 

9 

10 

Vertical 

Angles,  in 

Degrees 

Feet 

1 

97 
189 
282 
374 
467 
560 
653 
747 
841 
936 

191 

376 

560 

745 

931 

1,117 

1,304 

1,491 

1,680 

1,869 

286 
563 
840 
1,118 
1,396 
1,675 
1,955 
2,236 
2,519 
2,803 

383 
752 
1,121 
1,491 
1,862 
2,234 
2,607 
2,982 
3,359 
3,738 

480 
941 
1,403 
1,865 
2,329 
2,794 
3,261 
3,729 
4,200 
4,674 

768 
1,131 
1,685 
2,240 
2,797 
3,355 
3,915 
4,477 
5,043 
5,611 

678 
1,324 
1,970 
2,617 
3,267 
3,918 
4,571 
5,227 
5,887 
6,550 

778 
1,516 
2,255 
2,995 
3,737 
4,481 
5,227 
5,977 
6,731 
7,489 

880 
1,710 
2,541 
3,374 

4,208 

984 

2 

1,906 

3 

2,829 

4      

3,754 

5    

4,681 

6 

5,046 

5,612 

7 

5,886  6,545 

8 

6,729 

7,577 
8,430 

7,483 

9   

8,425 

10 

9,372 

APPENDIX 


357 


TRA\^RSE    TABLE  1 
Showing  Whole  Degrees  Only 


Degrees 

Latitude 

Departure 

0 

1.000 

0.000 

90 

1 

1.000 

.017 

89 

2 

.999 

.035 

88 

3 

.999 

.052 

87 

4 

.998 

.070 

86 

5 

.996 

.087 

85 

6 

.995 

.104 

84 

7 

.992 

.122 

83 

8 

.990 

.139 

82 

9 

.988 

.156 

81 

10 

.985 

.174 

80 

11 

.982 

.191 

79 

12 

.978 

.208 

78 

13 

.974 

.225 

77 

14 

.970 

.242 

76 

15 

.966 

.259 

75 

16 

.961 

.276 

74 

17 

.956 

.292 

73 

18 

.951 

.309 

72 

19 

.946 

.326 

71 

20 

.940 

.342 

70 

21 

.934 

.358 

69 

22 

.927 

.375 

68 

23 

.920 

.391 

67 

24 

.913 

.497 

66 

25 

.906 

.423 

65 

26 

.899 

.438 

64 

27 

.891 

.454 

63 

28 

.883 

.470 

62 

29 

.875 

.485 

61 

30 

.866 

.500 

60 

31 

.857 

.515 

59 

32 

.848 

.530 

58 

33 

.839 

.545 

57 

34 

.829 

.559 

56 

35 

.819 

.574 

55 

36 

.809 

.588 

54 

Departure 

Latitude 

Degrees 

1  For  table  showing  traverse  distances  of  fractional  degrees  consult 
"Instructions  for  iMaking  Forest  Surveys  and  Maps,"  1912,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture.     By  Henrj-  S.  Graves,  Forester. 

Any  other  reliable  work  on  general  surveying  should  include  similar 
information  concerning  traverse  tables. 


358        HANDBOOK   FOR   RANGERS   AND   WOODSMEN 


TRAVERSE    TABLE       (Continued) 
Showing  Whole  Degrees  Only 


Degrees 

Latitude 

Departure 

37 

.799 

.602 

53 

38 

.788 

.616 

52 

39 

.777 

.629 

51 

40 

.766 

.643 

50 

41 

.755 

.656 

49 

42 

.743 

.669 

48 

43 

.731 

.682 

47 

44 

.719 

.695 

46 

45 

.707 

.707 

45 

Departure 

Latitude 

Degrees 

PRESERVATIVE  TREATMENT  OF  TELEPHONE 
POLES.i 

Application  of  Creosote. — The  equipment  required  for  this 
work  consists  of  one  10-gallon  iron  pot,  a  half-gallon  dipper,  a 
2-  or  3-gallon  bucket,  a  4-inch  wire-bound  brush,  and  a  ther- 
mometer. Creosote  is  heated  in  the  iron  pot,  dipped  out  into 
the  bucket  and  carried  about  as  desired,  and  appUed  to  the 
poles  with  the  brush.  It  should  be  heated  to  a  temperature 
between  120°  F.  and  150°  F.  in  hot,  dry  weather  and  to  about 
180°  F.  in  cold  weather.  It  should  be  applied  to  the  poles 
while  hot,  the  points  of  application  being  the  end  surfaces  of 
the  poles,  and  their  entire  outer  surfaces  from  the  lower  end  up 
to  a  point  at  least  18  inches  above  ground  when  the  poles  are 
set.  A  second  application  should  be  made  twenty-four  hours 
later.  Braces,  stubs,  and  re-enforcements  should  receive  similar 
treatment. 

If  the  creosote  is  allowed  to  boil  over  it  may  take  fire  and  be 
consumed. 


1  See  the  following  Forest  Service  publications: 

Cir.  188,  Volatilization  of  Variovis  Fractions  of  Creosote  after  Their 
Injection  into  Wood. 

Bui.  84,  Preservative  Treatment  of  Poles. 

Bui.  78,  Wood  Preservation  in  the  United  States. 

Cir.  191,  Modification  of  the  Sulphonation  Test  for  Creosote. 

Cir.  190,  A  Visual  Method  for  Determining  the  Penetration  of  In- 
organic Salts  in  Treated  Wood. 


APPENDIX 
SIZE  AND  NUMBER  OF  NAILS  PER  POUND 


Size 


359 


Common  Wire 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

16 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

CommonWire,  Galv'z'd 

6 

8 

10 

Blued  Wire 

2  Common 

3  Fine 

Lath,  Blue,  Sterilized 

2  Light 

Fine  Wire 

2 

3 

Wire  Casing 

4 

6. 

8 

10 


Lgth 

Wire 

App'ox. 

in 
Ins. 

Gauge 

No.  per 
Lb. 

1 

15 

876 

IM 

14 

568 

I'A 

12  K 

316 

IM 

12  K 

271 

2 

UK 

181 

2M 

llK 

161 

2^ 

lOK 

106 

2H 

10  K 

96 

3 

9 

69 

3M 

9 

63 

3M 

8 

49 

4 

6 

31 

4^ 

5 

24 

5 

4 

18 

5J^ 

3 

14 

6 

2 

11 

2 

UK 

380 

2^ 

10  K 

92 

3 

9 

60 

1 

15 

876 

IK 

15 

778 

1 

17 

1,158 

1 

16K 

1,351 

IK 

15 

778 

IK 

14 

473 

2 

12  K 

236 

2K 

UK 

145 

3 

10  K 

94 

Used  in  all  ordinary- 
rough  work  such  as 
building,  fencing,  out- 
side repairs,  etc. 


Used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  common  wire 
nails. 

Used  in  lathing.  The 
bluing  permits  them 
to  be  held  in  the 
mouth  without  danger 
of  infection. 

Used  when  thin  hght 
nails  are  required. 

Used  in  ceiling,  orna- 
mental work,  and 
other  fine  work  or 
repairing. 


Cement-coated  nails  are  used  as  substitutes  for  common 
wire  nails. 

Ordinarily  wire  nails  are  shipped  in  lots  of  100  pounds  per  keg. 
but  the  shipping  weight  of  cement-coated  nails  varies  from  88 
pounds  for  2ds  to  90  pounds  for  60ds.     However,  there  are  as 


360 


HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 


Fig.  235. — Wire  nails. 


many  per  keg  as  there  are  common  wire  nails  of  a  corresponding 
size,  the  difference  in  weight  being  due  to  the  hghter  gauge. 

They  are  also  used  where  more  adhesive  resistance  is  required 
than  is  furnished  by  a  common  wire  nail.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
cement  coating  renders  them  from  20%  to  30%  more  durable 
when  exposed  to  extreme  moisture.  In  a  comparative  test  of 
adhesive  resistance,  a  common  wire  8d  nail,  driven  2  inches, 
showed  a  resistance  of  146  pounds;  a  cement-coated  nail  of  the 
same  size,  driven  a  like  distance,  showed  a  resistance  of  322 
pounds. 


SIZE  AND  NUMBER  OF  FENCE  STAPLES  PER  POUND 

Size,  in  Inches 

Number  per  Pound 


1 
120 


100 


80 


1  Supplied  by  Simmons  Hardware  Company,  St.  Louis.  Mo. 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


APPENDIX 
BLASTING  CHARGES! 


369 


Weight 
of 

Approximate  Number  of  134"  x  8"  Cart- 
ridges Required  for 

Boiilder, 
Pounds 

Block- 
holing 

Snake- 
hoUng 

IMud- 
capping 

100  to  500 

1  000       

1 

2H 
33^ 

Yi  to  1 

2^ 

3 

3^ 

4 

5 

6 

K  to  13^ 
2 

2  000    • 

3 

3  000 

33^ 

4  000 

4 

5  000 

43^ 

7,500 

6 

10,000 

8 

GOVERNMENT  FORMULA  FOR  WHITEWASH^ 
Take  half  a  bushel  of  unslacked  hme;  slack  it  with  boiling 
water  and  cover  during  the  process  to  keep  in  the  steam;  strain 
the  liquid  through  a  fine  sieve  or  strainer;  add  a  peck  of  salt 
previously  well  dissolved  in  warm  water,  3  pounds  of  ground 
rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste;  stir  in  boiUng  hot  one-half  pound 
of  powdered  Spanish  whiting  and  one  pound  of  glue  which 
has  been  previously  dissolved  over  a  slow  fire,  and  add  five 
gallons  hot  water  to  the  mixture;  stir  well  and  let  it  stand  for 
a  few  days,  covered  up  from  the  dirt.  It  should  be  put  on  hot. 
One  pint  of  mixture  will  cover  a  square  yard  properly  apphed. 
Small  brushes  are  best.  There  is  nothing  that  can  compare 
with  it  for  outside  or  inside  work,  and  it  retains  its  brilliancy  for 
years.  Coloring  matter  may  be  put  in  and  made  of  any  shade, 
as  Spanish  brown,  yellow  ochre,  or  common  clay. 

LOG  RULES 

The  log  rules  most  widely  used  in  the  United  States  are  the 

Two-Thirds  rule,  used  in  many  parts  of  the  North  and  South, 

and  the  Southeast  and  Northwest;    the  Doyle,  also  used  in  the 

same  sections;    the  Scribner,   in   common  use  throughout  the 

1  Supplied    by    E.    I.    du    Pont    de    Nemours    Powder    Company, 
Wilmington,  Delaware. 

2  Contributed  by  International  Harvester  Co.,  Chicago.  111. 


m 


370   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

country;  the  Doyle-Scribner,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  widely 
used  of  any;  and  the  Scribner  Decimal  "  C,"  which  is  the  official 
log  rule  of  the  Forest  Service. 

Two-Thirds  Rule. — This  rule  is  based  on  a  formula  in  which 
the  square  of  two-thirds  of  the  small  diameter  of  a  log  is  multi- 
plied by  the  number  of  the  log's  length  in  feet,  this  result  then 
being  divided  by  12.  Thus,  letting  D  represent  the  diameter, 
L  the  length,  and  C  the  number  of  board  feet  in  a  log,  the  formula 

2       L 

X  - —  =  C.     For  a  12-foot  log  the  formula  would,  of 

2D 

course,  l)e  -—  =  C.      This   scale   crosses   the    Doyle   at  18  and 

o 

the  Scribner  at  15  inches,  overrunning  both  to  these  respective 
diameters  and  underrunning  them  thereafter. 

Doyle  Rule. — This  scale  is  also  based  on  a  formula,  wherein 
4  is  subtracted  from  the  small  diameter  and  one-fourth  of  the 
remainder  is  squared  and  then  multiplied  by  the  number  of  the 

log's  length  in  feet,  thus:    ( 1   X  L  =C.    A  shorter  formula, 

applicable  only  to  16-foot  logs,  follows:    (D  —  4)^  =  C.     A  third 

L 
formula,  appHcable  to  logs  of  any  length,  is:  {D  —  4)^  X  -—  =  C. 

The  subtraction  of  4  from  the  diameter  is  supposed  to  account 
for  the  loss  in  kerf  and  slabs,  and,  since  it  applies  with  equal 
force  to  large  and  small  logs,  is  obviously  unfair.  The  only 
means  by  which  the  mill  tally  may  be  made  to  agree  with  it 
are  by  scaling  each  log  full  with  no  allowance  whatever  for 
defect  and  by  the  very  poorest  and  most  wasteful  sawing. 
Even  then  the  mill  overrun  may  be  astonishing.  The  rule  up 
to  and  including  a  24-foot  log  48  inches  in  diameter  is  shown  on 
page  372. 

Numbers  shown  on  the  scale  stick  fail  in  several  instances  to 

/2)_4\2 
agree  with  results  obtained  from  the  formula :  (  — - —  J  X  L  =  C. 

There  appears  to  be  no  systematic  disposition  of  fractions  in 
computations  involving  the  contents  of  logs  having  diameters 
other  than  multiples  of  4,  but  the  wide  discrepancies  noted  in 
reference  to  contents  of  logs  10,  19,  22,  38  and  39  by  20,  23  by 
14  and  16,  27  by  16,  31  by  22,  and  39  by  12  elude  explanation. 

Some  of  these  discrepancies  are  shown  in  table  opposite. 


APPENDIX 


371 


Diameter 

in 

Inches 


Lgth. 

in 
Feet 


Board  Feet  as 
Shown 


By  Stick    By  Formula 


Difference 


Loss 


Gain 


24 
20 
18 
22 
24 
24 
18 
22 
20 
24 
18 
20 
22 
14 
16 
20 
24 
18 
22 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
20 
22 
14 
18 
22 
20 
22 
14 
18 
20 
12 
20 
24 
20 
20 
22 
20 
20 


37 

46 

112 

137 

181 

253 

220 

269 

280 

433 

364 

404 

445 

313 

359 

452 

541 

544 

665 

463 

530 

596 

782 

860 

912 

1,004 

787 

1,012 

1,237 

1,202 

1,322 

1,011 

1,300 

1,446 

910 

1,530 

2,053 

1,902 

2,102 

2,312 

2,206 

2,312 


37.50 
45.00 
112.50 
137.50 
181.50 
253 . 50 
220 . 50 
269 . 50 
281.25 
433 . 50 
364 . 50 
405.00 
445 . 50 
315.875 
361.00 
451.25 
541.50 
544 . 50 
655 . 50 
462 . 875 
529.00 
595.125 
781.25 
859 . 375 
911.25 
1002 . 375 

787 . 50 
1012.50 
1237.50 
1201.25 
1321.375 
1011.50 
1300.50 
1445.00 
918.75 
1531.25 
2053 . 50 
1901.25 
2101.25 
2311.375 
2205.00 
2311.25 


.50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

25 

50 

50 

00 

50 

875 

00 

.50 
.50 
,50 


50 
.50 
.50 


.50 
,50 

75 
25 
50 


372    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 
DOYLE  LOG  RULEi 


Length  ix  Feet 


12 

18 

24 

32 

40 

50 

60 

72 

84 

98 

112 

128 

144 

162 

180 

200 

220 

242 

264 

288 

312 

338 

364 

392 

420 

450 

480 

512 

544 

578 

612 

648 

684 

722 

761 

800 

840 

882 

925 

968 


10 


10 

16 

23 

31 

40 

50 

62 

75 

90 

106 

122 

141 

160 

181 

202 

226 

250 

276 

302 

330 

360 

391 

422 

456 

490 

526 

562 

601 

640 

681 

723 

765 

810 

856 

902 

951 

1,000 

1,051 

1,103 

1,155 

1,218 


12 


14 


12 

19 

27 

37 

48 

61 

75 

91 

108 

127 

147 

169 

192 

217 

243 

271 

300 

331 

363 

397 

432 

469 

507 

547 

588 

631 

675 

721 

768 

817 

867 

910 

972 

1,027 

1,083 

1,141 

1,200 

1,261 

1,323 

1,387 

1,452 


14 

22 

32 

43 

56 

71 

88 

106 

126 

148 

171 

197 

224 

253 

283 

313 

350 

386 

423 

463 

504 

547 

591 

638 

686 

736 

787 

841 

896 

953 

1,011 

1,070 

1,134 

1,198 

1,264 

1,331 

1,400 

1,471 

1,544 

1,618 

1,694 


16 


16 

25 

36 

49 

64 

81 

100 

121 

144 

169 

196 

225 

256 

289 

324 

359 

400 

441 

484 

530 

576 

625 

676 

729 

784 

841 

900 

961 

1,024 

1,089 

1,156 

1,225 

1,296 

1,369 

1,444 

1,521 

1,600 

1,681 

1,764 

1,849 

1,936 


18 


18 

28 

41 

55 

72 

91 

112 

136 

162 

190 

220 

253 

288 

325 

364 

406 

450 

496 

544 

596 

648 

703 

761 

820 

882 

946 

1,012 

1,081 

1,152 

1,225 

1,300 

1,379 

1,458 

1,540 

1,625 

1,711 

1,800 

1,891 

1,985 

2,080 

2,178 


20 


20 

31 

46 

61 

80 

101 

125 

151 

180 

211 

245 

280 

320 

361 

404 

452 

500 

551 

605 

661 

720 

782 

845 

912 

980 

1,051 

1,125 

1,202 

1,280 

1,361 

1,446 

1,530 

1,620 

1,711 

1,805 

1,902 

2,000 

2,102 

2,206 

2,312 

2.420 


22 

34 

50 

67 

88 

111 

137 

166 

198 

232 

269 

309 

352 

397 

445 

496 

550 

606 

665 

726 

792 

860 

930 

1,004 

1,078 

1,156 

1,237 

1,322 

1,408 

1,497 

1,590 

1,684 

1,782 

1,882 

1,986 

2,091 

2,200 

2,312 

2,426 

2,542 

2,662 


1  Supplied  by  Lufkin  Rule  Co.,  Saginaw,  Mich. 


APPENDIX 


373 


Scribner  Rule. — This  rule  is  based  on  diagrams  showing  what 
logs  of  different  lengths  and  diameters  should  saw  out.  It  is 
fairly  accurate  on  logs  over  28  inches  in  diameter,  but  overruns 
on  smaller  logs  unless  these  are  very  carefully  culled  and  sawed. 
The  rule  up  to  and  including  a  20-foot  log  36  inches  in  diameter 
follows : 

SCRIBNER  LOG  RULE 


Diam. 

Lexgth  in  Feet 

in 
Ins. 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

6 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

11 

7 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

8 

12 

15 

19 

22 

25 

28 

31 

9 

18 

23 

27 

32 

36 

40 

45 

10 

24 

30 

37 

43 

49 

55 

61 

11 

32 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

12 

40 

49 

59 

69 

79 

88 

98 

13 

48 

61 

73 

85 

97 

109 

122 

14 

57 

72 

86 

100 

114 

129 

143 

15 

71 

89 

107 

125 

142 

160 

178 

16 

79 

99 

119 

139 

159 

178 

198 

17 

93 

116 

139 

162 

185 

208 

232 

18 

106 

133 

160 

187 

213 

240 

267 

19 

120 

150 

180 

210 

240 

270 

300 

20 

140 

175 

210 

245 

280 

315 

350 

21 

152 

190 

228 

266 

304 

342 

380 

22 

167 

209 

251 

292 

334 

376 

418 

23 

188 

235 

283 

330 

377 

424 

470 

24 

202 

252 

303 

353 

404 

454 

505 

25 

229 

287 

344 

401 

459 

516 

573 

26 

250 

313 

375 

439 

500 

562 

625 

27 

274 

342 

411 

479 

548 

616 

684 

28 

291 

363 

436 

509 

582 

654 

728 

29  ...  . 

305 

381 

457 

533 

609 

685 

761 

30  ...  . 

328 

411 

493 

575 

657 

739 

821 

31.  .  .  . 

355 

444 

532 

622 

710 

799 

888 

32 

368 

460 

552 

644 

736 

828 

920 

33 

392 

490 

588 

686 

784 

882 

980 

34 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1,000 

35 

438 

547 

657 

766 

876 

985 

1,095 

36 

462 

577 

692 

807 

923 

1,038 

1.152 

Doyle-Scribner  Rule. — By  combining  Doyle  measurements  for 
logs  under  28  inches  in  diameter  ^ath  Scribner  measurements 


374   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

for  larger  logs  this  rule  eliminates  the  greatest  faults  of  both 
and  provides  a  fairly  accurate  rule  for  all  logs. 

Scribner  Decimal  "  C  "  Rule. — This  is  merely  a  revision  of  the 
Scribner  rule  and  is  formulated  by  dropping  units  and  rounding 
off  tens  to  the  next  above  or  below.  Therefore  the  figures  rep- 
resenting board  feet  on  the  scale  stick  are  not  complete,  but 
require  the  addition  of  a  cipher  except  in  6-  and  7-inch  logs  6 
feet  long  and  6-inch  logs  8  feet  long,  the  contents  of  all  of  which 
are  indicated  on  the  stick  as  0.5,  which,  being  theoretically 
multiphed  by  10,  as  are  all  the  other  volume  numbers,  equal  5 
board  feet. 

The  system  of  revision  seems  to  lack  uniformity  throughout 
the  rule  up  to  the  12-inch  diameter. 

Instructions  concerning  official  use  of  the  rule  state  that  in 
Alaska  and  west  of  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  in 
Washington  and  Oregon,  all  logs  up  to  32  feet  long,  inclusive, 
will  be  scaled  as  one  log.  Logs  from  34  to  64  feet,  inclusive, 
will  be  scaled  as  two  logs  as  nearly  the  same  length  in  even  feet 
as  possible.  Logs  exceeding  64  feet  in  length  will  be  scaled  as 
three  logs  as  nearly  equal  in  lengths  of  even  feet  as  possible. 
When  such  divisions  of  a  log  are  necessary  the  scaler  must  make 
allowance  for  taper,  but  tables  of  taper  may  be  secured  upon 
requisition. 

The  rule  up  to  and  including  a  32-foot  log  120  inches  in  diam- 
eter foUows: 


APPENDIX  375 

SCRIBNER  DECIMAL  "C"  LOG  RULE  i 


Length  in  Feet 


14 

16 

18 

20 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

6 

6 

7 

5 

7 

8 

8 

7 

8 

9 

10 

8 

10 

11 

12 

10 

11 

13 

14 

12 

14 

16 

18 

14 

16 

18 

20 

16 

18 

21 

23 

19 

21 

24 

27 

21 

24 

27 

30 

24 

28 

31 

35 

27 

30 

34 

38 

29 

33 

38 

42 

33 

38 

42 

47 

35 

40 

45 

50 

40 

46 

52 

57 

44 

50 

56 

62 

48 

55 

62 

68 

51 

58 

65 

73 

53 

61 

68 

76 

57 

66 

74 

82 

62 

71 

80 

89 

64 

74 

83 

92 

69 

78 

88 

98 

70 

80 

90 

xOO 

77 

88 

98 

109 

81 

92 

104 

115 

90 

103 

116 

129 

93 

107 

120 

133 

98 

112 

126 

140 

105 

120 

135 

150 

HI 

127 

143 

159 

117 

134 

151 

168 

122 

140 

157 

174 

129 

148 

166 

185 

133 

152 

171 

190 

1 

2 
3 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

n' 

9j  12 
11  14' 
12|  15| 
13j  17 
14|  19 
15|  21 
17  23 
19  25 
2lj  27| 
22|  29 
23  31 
25J  33 

27  36 

28  37 

29  39 

30  40 
33  44 
35  46' 

39  51 

40  54 
42|  56 
45  60 
48[  64 
50^  67 
52  70 
56  74 

45 '  57  76 


50.5 
5  1 


3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

9 

10 

12 
13 

15|  18| 

17  21 

19  23 

21  25 

23  281 

25 

29 

31 

34 

36 

38 

41 

44 

46 

49 

50 

55 

58 

64;  77; 

67,  80 
70  84 
75  90 
79  95 
84101 
87105 
93111 
95114 


'30| 
34 
37 
41 


66 


166 
175; 
185 


11 

13 

16 

20 

22 

25 

29| 

33| 

38 

42 

46 

52 

55 

631 

691 

75 

80 

84 

901 

98  106 
lOlj  110 
108  118 
110'  120 
120  131 
127  138 
142^  154 
147'  160 
154'  168 


181 
191 
201 


4 
5 
6 
9 

11 

13 

16 

19 

23 

26 

30 

35 

39 

45 

49 

54 

61 

66 

75 

82 

89 

95 

99 
107 
115 
120  129 
127  137 
130  140 


192  209 
204  222 
209  226 


142 
150 
167 
174 
182 
196' 
207 
218 
227 


102 
107 
115 
124 


153 
161 
180j 
187 
196' 
21l[ 
223 
235 
244' 


5 
6 
7 
9 
12 
14 
16 
19 
23 
28 
32 
37 
43 
48 
56 
61 
67 
75 
81 
92 


241     259 

247     266 


94,  100 

103'  110 

109'  116 

114  122 

123  131 

133  142 

138  147 

147,  157 

150'  160 

164  175 

173  185 

193  206 

200  214 

210  224 

226  241 

238  254 

252  269 

262  27? 

278  296 

286  304 


Official  rule  of  the  Forest  Service  and  used  in  all  Government  scaling. 


376        HANDBOOK    FOR   RANGERS   AND    WOODSMEN 
SCRIBNER  DECIMAL  "C"  LOG  RULE   (Continued) 


Length  in  Feet 

Diam. 

in 

Inches 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

46 

59 

79 

99 

119 

139 

159 

178 

198 

218 

238 

258 

278 

297 

317 

47 

62 

83104124 

145 

166 

186 

207 

228 

248 

269 

290 

310 

331 

48 

65 

86108130 

151 

173 

194 

216 

238 

260 

281 

302 

324 

346 

49 

67 

90112135 

157 

180 

202 

225 

247 

270 

292 

314 

337 

359 

50 

70 

94117140 

164 

187 

211 

234 

257 

281 

304 

328 

351 

374 

51 

73 

971221461701 

195 

219 

243 

268 

292 

315 

341 

365 

389 

52 

76101127152177 

202 

228 

253 

278 

304 

329 

354 

380 

405 

53 

79105132158184 

210 

237 

263 

289 

316 

341 

368 

395 

421 

54 

82109137164191 

218 

246 

273 

300 

328 

355 

382 

410 

437 

55 

85113,142  170198 

227 

255 

283 

312 

340 

368 

397 

425 

453 

56 

88 

118147176206 

235 

264 

294 

323 

353 

382 

411 

441 

470 

57 

91 

122152  183213 

244 

274 

304 

335 

365 

396 

426 

457 

487 

58 

95126158189221 

252 

284 

315 

347 

379 

410 

442 

473 

505 

59 

98131163196'229 

261 

294 

327 

359 

392 

425 

457 

490 

523 

60 

101135169  203  237 

270 

304 

338 

372 

406 

439 

473 

507 

541 

61 

105140175210,245 

280 

315 

350 

385 

420 

455 

490 

525 

560 

62 

108145181 

217253 

289 

325 

362 

398 

434 

470 

506 

542 

579 

63 

112149187 

224  261 

299 

336 

373 

411 

448 

485 

523 

560 

597 

64 

116  154'l93  232270 

309 

348 

387 

425 

464 

503 

541 

580 

619 

65 

119159199  239  279 

319 

358 

398 

438 

478 

518 

558 

597 

637 

66 

123164206247288 

329 

370 

412 

453 

494 

535  576 

617 

659 

67 

127170  212  254  297 

339 

381 

423 

466 

508 

550  593 

635 

677 

68 

131175219262306 

350 

393 

437 

480 

524 

568 

611 

655 

699 

69 

135180  226271316 

361 

406 

452 

497 

542 

587 

632 

677 

723 

70 

139186  232279  325 

372 

419 

465 

512 

558 

605 

651 

698 

744 

71 

144192  240'287  335 

383 

430 

478 

526 

574 

622 

670 

717 

765 

72 

148,197,247  296  345 

395 

444 

493 

543 

592  641 

691 

740 

789 

73 

152  203'254  305356 

406 

457 

508 

559 

610  661 

712 

762 

813 

74 

157209261314366 

418 

471 

523 

576 

628 

680 

733 

785 

837 

75 

161215  269  323  377 

430 

484 

538 

592 

646 

700 

754 

807 

861 

76 

166221277332387 

443 

498 

553 

609 

664 

719 

775 

830 

885 

77 

171228  285  341398 

455 

511 

568 

625 

682 

739 

796 

852 

909 

78 

176234'293  351410 

468 

527 

585 

644 

702 

761 

819 

878 

936 

79.. 

180  240'30l'361421 

481 

541 

602 

662 

722 

782 

842 

902 

963 

80 

185247  309371432 

494 

556 

618 

680 

742 

804 

866 

927 

986 

81 

190^254  317  38l'444 

508 

572 

635 

699 

762 

826 

889 

9531,016 

82 

196261  32639l'456 

521 

586 

652 

717 

782 

847 

912 

9771,043 

83 

201268  335  401468 

535 

601 

668 

735 

802 

869 

936 

1,0021,069 

84 

206275343412481 

549 

618 

687 

755 

824 

893 

961 

1,030,1,099 

85 

210281351421491 

561 

631 

702 

772 

842 

912 

982 

1,052 

1,123 

86 

215287,359431503 

575 

646 

718 

79C 

862 

934 

1,006 

1,077 

1 

1,149 

APPENDIX  377 

SCRIBNER  DECIMAL  "C"  LOG  RULE   ^Continued) 


Diam. 

in 
Inches 


Length  in  Feet 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22      24      26      28      30      32 


100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104 '313417 


295368  442  516 
301377|452'527 
308'385  462  539 
315'393  472^551 
322*402  483  563 
329'41l|493  575 
25l'335419o03'587 
257'343'428  514|600 
262|350  437  525  612' 
268|357  446  536|625 
273,364  455  546  637 
278371j464|557|650 
284  379^473  068  663 
289  386482  579  675 


295  393  492  590  688 
301401J502  602  702 
307  409  512  614  716 
Ioio^ir7  522  626'730 


105 '319425 

106 '325433 


107. 
108. 


331442 


532  638  744 
542|650|758 
553:663  773 


.'337  450  563  675  788 

109 '334459  573'688'803 

I       I       I       I 

110. 


350  467583  700  817 

111 356475  594'713'832' 

112 362  483  604'725'846| 

113 369|492  615|738|861 

114 375  501  626  751  876  1 

115 382  509  637  764  891 1 

116 389  519  648*778*908  1 

117 396  528'660|792  9241 

118 403<537!672'806'940'l 

119. 
120. 


410  547j683  820:957*1 
417  556  695  834'973'l 


589 
603 
616 
629 
644 
657 
671 
685 
700 
715 
728 
743 
757 
772 
787 
803 
819 
835 
851 
867 
884 
900 
917 
933 
951 
967 
984 
,001 
,019 
,037 
,056 
,075, 
,093 
,112 


737 
753 

770 
787 
805 
822 
838 
857 
875 
893 
9101 
928  L 
9471; 
9651; 
9831; 
1,0031; 

92l'l,0231; 

939'l,043'l; 

9574,0631; 

9751,0831; 

9951,1051; 

,0131,12511; 

,0321,147'l; 

,0501,167*1; 

,069|l,188'l; 

,0871,2081; 

,1071,2301; 

,1261,2521; 

,1461,2731, 


678 
693 
708 
725 
739 
754 
771 
788 
804 
819 
835 
852 
869 
885 
903 


810 
829 

847 

865 

886 

904 

922 

942'l 

963|l 

9831 

0011 

0211 


884 
904 
924 
944' 1 
9661 


1671,297 
1881,320 
2091,343 
230'l,367 


,2511,3901 


041 

062 

082 

104 

126 

148 

170 

192 

216 

238 

261 

283 

307 

329 

353 

377 

401 

426 

4521 

4781 

503|l 

529*1 


9581; 
9791 
,0011 
,0231 
,047*1 
,0681 


1,1051,179 


1,130 


1,155 

1,180 

127|l,208 

1501,232 


1 
1,0901,1741,257 


,2281 


5021 
5281 
5561 
5841 
6121 
64011 
668'l 


1141 

138 

161 

183 

207 

231 

,255 

,278 

,304 

,330 

,356 

,382 

408 

437 

463 

491 

517 

545 

571 

599 

627 

655 

686 

716 

746 

777 

807 


,1991,285 
1,2251,313 
1,251[1,340 
1 


,2741,365 
3001,392 
3251,420 
3511,448 
3771,475 


4051,505 
4331,535 
461*1,565 
4891,595 
517'l,625 
547*1,658 


1,205 
1,232 
1,259 
1,288 
1,315 
1,341 
1,371 
1,400 
1,429 
1,456 
1,485 
1,515 
1,544 
1,573 
1,605 
1,637 
1,669 
1,701 
1,733 
1,768 
1,800 
1,835 


5751,688 
6051,720 
6331,7501,867 
6641,7821,901 
692*1,8121,933 
7221,8451,968 
752*1,8772,003 
783ll,9102,037 
815|l,945  2,075 
848'l,980  2,112 
8812,0152,149 
9132,050  2,187 
946'2,085'2,224 
I  I 


COMPARISON  OF  LOG  RULES  i 
The  following  table  shows  the  comparison  of  measurements 
of  16-foot  logs  from  8  to  48  inches  in  diameter  as  these  are  given 
by  the  more  widely  used  rules.     Less  prominent  rules,  such  as 

^  Supplied  by  Lufkin  Rule  Company,  Saginaw,  Mich. 


378    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

Doyle-Baxter,  Herring,  Drew,  Minor,  Beaumont,  and  numerous 
others  are  not  listed  in  the  table: 


16 

25 

36 

49 

64 

81 
100 
121 
144 
169 
196 
225 
256 
289 
324 
359 
400 
441 
484 
530 
576 
625 
676 
729 
784 
841 
900 
961 
,024 
,0891 
,1561 
,2251 
,2961 
,3691 
,4441 
,52l|l 
,600|1 
,6811 
,7641 
,8491 
,9361 


25 

36 

49 

64 

79 

97 
114 
142 
159 
185 
213 
240 
280 
304 
334 
377 
404 
459 
500 
548 
582 
609 
657 
710 
736 
784 
800 
876 
923 
,029 
,0681 
,1201 
,204!  1 
,272' 1 
,343|l 
,3961 
,4801 
,5181 
,587^1 
,6561 
,7281 

I 


22 
29 
37 

48 

64 

82 

98 
120 
142 
166 
197 
226 
248 
285 
324 
357 
392 
434 
476 
520 
562} 
596 
632 
678 
725 
785 
845 
882 
920! 
978| 
,037' 
,098| 
,1601 
,2131 
,266  \ 
,3341 
,4021 
,4741 
,5461 
,6211 
,6961 


34 

44 

56 

69 

84 

100 

117 

136 

156 

177 

200 

224 

250 

277 

305 

335 


36 

48 

58 

70 

85 

100 

116 

133 

151 

171 

192 

213 

237 

261 

286 

313 


366  341 
399  370 
432  400 
468  432 
504'  464 
543'  498 
582  533 
623  569 
665  606 
709  648 
754'  685 
8O0I  725 
848  768 
897[  8II; 
946  855 
999'  901 
,052^  9441 
,107J  9951 
,1631,0451 
,2211,0951 
,2801,1471 
,3401,2001 
,401  1,253  1 
,464  1,3091 
,5291,3651 


40 
54 
68 
80 
100 
117 
136 
157 
180 
204 
229 
256 
285 
315 
346 
379 
414 
450 
487 
526 
567j 
609 
652 
697 
744 
792 
841' 
892 
945 
999 
,054 
,111 
,170 
,227 
,300 


93 

107 
121 
137 
153 
171 
190 
209 
229 
250 
281 
296 
320 
345 
372 
399 
427 
456 
485 
516 
548 
581 
614 
649 
685 
721 
759 
798 
835 
877| 
918 
,350'  960 
,4101,003; 
,4701,048 
,5801,092 


33 
46 
59 

72 
85 
100 
116 
133 
150 
172^ 
192' 
2131 
237 
261 
284 
312' 
34l| 
369 
400; 
432 
464| 
498 
533 
568j 
608| 
645 
685 
725! 
768' 
810 
8561 
9011 
9471 
9961 
0451 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


33 

45 
61 

70 
77 
97 
117 
144 
170 
188 
206 
226 
248 
285 
324 
357 
392 
421 
450 
520 
536 
584 
632 
678 
725 
785 
845 
882 
920 
978 


4 
6 

7 
8 
10 
11 
14 
16 
18 
21 
24 
28 
30 
33 
38 
40 
46 
50 
55 
58 
61 
66 
71 
74 
78 
80 
88 
92 
103 


50 

63 

77 

94 

114 

137 

161 

188 

216 

245 

276 

308 

341 


037  107 
090  112 
160  120 
213  127 
266  134 
334  140| 
402  148 
474  152' 
546  159| 
621  166 
696'  173 


376 

412 

449 

488 

528 

569 

6I2I 

656 

701 

748 

796 

845 

897 

950| 

,0061,029 

,0641,068 

,1241,120 

,185|l,204 

,248|l,272 

3121,343 

3771,396 

,4481,480 

5121,518 

5811,587 

6521,656 

7241,728 


GLOSSARY 

In  any  locality  to  which  he  may  be  assigned  the  new  field 
man  will  experience  more  or  less  confusion  in  his  deahngs  with 
local  residents  who  may  use  terms  which  are  vague  or  even 
meaningless  to  him. 

A  word  or  phrase  that  may  be  tjT^ical  of  one  region  may  not 
be  used  in  another,  or,  being  used,  may  be  so  corrupted  or  modi- 
fied as  to  take  on  an  entirely  different  meaning,  and  it  is  there- 
fore impossible  to  compile  a  glossary  covering  each  and  every 
strange  term  in  all  its  phases.  It  is  beUeved,  however,  that 
the  following  list  of  words  and  their  definitions  covers  most  of 
the  terms  the  new  man  will  not  at  first  understand.  The  defini- 
tions given  are  not  in  every  case  precisely  in  accordance  with 
those  preferred  by  many  philologists,  but  they  will  be  found 
appUcable  to  their  respective  terms  as  these  are  used  and  gen- 
erally understood  in  the  field. 

Technical  terms,  appHcable  to  special  lines  of  work,  are 
usually  defined  in  an  official  glossary  that  may  be  secured  upon 
requisition,  and  for  that  reason  only  the  more  common  ones 
are  included  here. 

A  key  to  the  abbreviations  used  follows: 


n. 

=  Noun. 

N. 

=  North. 

V. 

=  Verb. 

S. 

=  South. 

a. 

=  Adjective. 

E. 

=  East. 

adv. 

=  Adverb. 

W. 

=  West. 

pro. 

=  Pronounced  locally. 

NE. 

=  Northeast. 

col. 

=  Colloquialism  in. 

NW. 

=  Northwest. 

cf. 

=  Compare  with. 

SE. 

=  Southeast. 

Sp. 

=  Spanish  origin. 

SW. 

=  Southwest. 

com. 

=  Common  to. 

AS. 

=  All  sections. 

^Miere  reference  has  been  had  to  a  dictionary,   Webster's 
Intercollegiate  has  been  used. 

A 

adobe,  n.  (1)  A  brownish-colored  variety  of  stiff  clay  found  in 
SW.  and  portions  of  W.  (Sp.:  adobar,  to  plaster.)  Pro. 
ah-doe'-bay,  but  generally  abbreviated  to  "  dobe." 

(2)  A  sun-dried  brick  made  of  adobe. 

(3)  A  building  made  of  adobe  brick.     Generally  known  as  a 

"  dobe." 

379 


380   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

alfalfa,  n.     A  homestead  entered  in  a  National  Forest  under  the  Act 
of  June  11,  1906.     Col.  W.  and  SW.     See  June  11. 

arrastra,  n.  A  crude  form  of  ore-crusher,  the  ore  being  ground 
rather  than  crushed.  An  upright  shaft  sets  in  a  circular  rock- 
•bottomed  enclosure  and  usually  bears  two  or  four  horizontal 
arms,  to  the  outer  ends  of  which  hea\'y  stones  are  hung  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  ore  is  ground  between  them  and  the 
rock  bottom  of  the  pit.  The  shaft  is  rotated  by  means  of 
water-,  horse-  or  man-power.  (Sp. :  arrastrar,  to  crawl,  to 
creep.)  Pro.  "  raster."  Especially  com.  SW.,  and  frequently 
used  in  other  gold-producing  regions. 
V.     To  crush  ore  in  an  arrastra. 

arroyo,  n.     A  deep,  narrow  ditch  or  gully.      (Sp.:   arroyo,  a  rivulet.) 
Pro.  ah-roy'-yoh.     Com.  W. 

B 

backfire,  n.     A  fire  started  in  front  of  another  in  such  a  manner  as 

to  burn  toward  it  and  consume  inflammable  material  upon 

which  it  would  otherwise  feed. 
V.     To  fight  one  fire  by  means  of  another. 
balky,  a.     A  term  applied  to  an  animal  that  refuses  to  work  in 

harness. 
band,  n.     A  group  of  sheep  or  goats,  usually  from  2,000  to  2,200  in 

number, 
bang,  V.     To  cut  away  an  animal's  foretop.     Cf.  Roach. 
bar,  n.     (1)   The  ridge  at  the  side  of  an  animal's  frog. 

(2)  That  part  or  a  bit  w^iich  passes  through  an  animal's  mouth. 

(3)  That  part  of  an  animal's  jaw  between  the  molars  and 

incisors. 

(4)  One  of  the  crossudse  ridges  at  the  roof  of  an  animal's 

mouth. 

(5)  One  form  of  branding-iron. 

(6)  A  horizontal  mark  used  as  part  of  or  to  cancel  a  brand. 

(7)  The  wooden  side  of  a  saddle-tree. 

(8)  One  of  a  set  of  poles  used  in  lieu  of  a  gate. 

(9)  A  shallow  ridge  formed  in  the  bed  of  a  river  by  action  of 

the  current.     Also  col.  S.  and  SE.  for  a   long,  low,  flat 
stretch  of  clean  gravel  or  sand  appearing  between  the 
river's  edge  and  the  bank  proper. 
(10)  See  Crow  bar  and  Pinch  bar. 

iron,  n.     A  straight  iron  rod  with  a  shorter  piece  or  bar  welded 
at  right  angles  to  it  at  one  end  and  used  as  a  branding-iron. 
barrow,  n.     A  castrated  hog. 
bay,  n.      A  bay  animal. 

a.     Reddish-brown  in  color. 


GLOSSARY  381 

bay,  V.  The  action  of  a  "  cow  "  dog  in  barking  at  and  otherwise 
engaging  a  cow's  attention  until  she  can  be  caught  by 
the  stockman. 

bed,  n.     (1)  A  wagon  box. 

(2)  The  foundation  of  a  trail  or  road  tread. 

(3)  The  bottom  of  a  ditch  or  canon. 

V.     (1)   To  prepare  ground  upon  which  cotton  is  to  be  raised. 

Com.  AS.  where  cotton  is  raised. 
(2)   To  "  bed  down  "  cattle  or  sheep;   to  stop  and  keep  them 
quiet  over  night. 
beetle,  n.     A  heavy  wooden  mallet  used  in  driving  iron  wedges  or 
wooden  gluts  into  timbers  that  are  to  be  split  open.     The 
head  sets  at  right  angles  to  the  handle  and  is  bound  at  either 
end  with  an  iron  band.     Cf.  Maul. 
bevel-square,  n.     A  small  adjustable  square  used  in  laj-ing  o^  angles, 
bit,  n.     (1)   That  part  of  a  bridle  which  works  in  an  animal's  mouth. 

(2)  The  blade  or  cutting  portion  of  a  tool. 

(3)  Col.  S.,  SE.,  W.  and  SW.  for  twelve  and  one-half  cents 

(4)  A  variety  of  earmark. 

blab,  n.     A  flat  piece  of  wood  or  heavy  tin  or  leather  suspended 
from  a  calf's  nose  in  such  a  way  as  to  fall  before  the  calf's 
mouth  and  thereby  prevent  sucking.     The  calf  soon  learns 
to  throw  it  forward  and  out  of  the  way  in  feeding  from  the 
ground. 
V.     To  attach  a  blab  to  a  calf's  nose. 
boar,  n.     An  uncastrated  hog. 
board,  n.     Col.  S.,  SE.,  and  W.  for  clapboard  or  shake  (q.v.). 

foot:    The  unit  of  lumber  measure;    equal  to  a  plank  12  inches 
square  and  1  inch  thick. 
bob,  V.     To  cut  away  the  hair  at  the  end  of  an  animal's  tail.     Cf. 

Roach. 
bog,  n.     A  small  area  of  stiff  mud  deep  enough  to  entrap  animals 
that  enter  it  in  their  attempts  to  secure  grass  or  water.       Also 
known  as  "  boghole." 
^       V.     (1)   To  bog  down;   to  be  entrapped  in  a  boghole. 

(2)  Bog  pulling,  the  operation  of  pulling  or  assisting  an  animal 
out  of  a  boghole. 
bole,  n.     The  trunk  or  stem  of  a  tree. 

bolster,  n.     That  portion  of  a  wagon  gear  upon  which  the  bed  rests, 

bone-brand,  n.     A  blurred  brand  due  to  excessive  heat  or  protracted 

pressure  of  the  iron  at  the  time  the  brand  is  applied. 

r.     To  burn  an  animal  severely  in  branding. 

bozal,  n.     That  part  of  a  halter,  hackamore  or  bridle  which  passes 

about  the  animal's  jaws  above  the  mouth.      (Sp. :    bozal,   a 

muzzle,  a  novice.)     Pro.  bo-zahl'.     Com.  W.  and  SW. 


382   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

brand,   n.     A   character   burned   into   or   otherwise   appHed   to   an 
animal's    skin,    hoofs,   or    horns    to    facihtate    identification. 
Also  applied  to  tools  and  other  property  for  the  same  puipose. 
V.     To  apply  identification  marks  to  property, 
branding-hatchet,  n.     See  Marking-hatchet. 

breast-collar,  n.     (1)  A  leather  strap  passed  from  one  side  of  the 

saddle  rig  beneath  the  animal's  neck  and  across  to  the  other 

side  of  the  rig  and  supplied  in  order  to  facilitate  leading  or 

dragging  stock  from  the  saddle-horn. 

(2)  That  part  of   a   buggy   or   carriage   harness   which   passes 

before  an  animal's  breast  and  which  is  supported  from  a 

strap  across  the  neck  immediately  before  the  withers. 

strap,  n.     That  part  of  a  harness  which  supports  the  end  of  the 

neck  yoke, 
yoke,  n.     That  part  of  a  wagon  gear  which  is  suspended  from  the 
team's  collars  and  which  supports  the  forward  end  of 
the   pole.     More    commonly   known    as    "  neck  "    yoke. 
The  term  "  breast  yoke  "  doubtless  originates  from  the 
fact  that  the  yoke  works  before  the  animals'  breasts. 
brindle,   a.     Marked   with   streaks   of   (usually)    black   and   brown, 
although  often  used  in  reference  to  a  similar  arrangement  of 
other  colors. 
brisket,  n.     That  portion  of  an  animal's  breast  next  to  the  ribs. 

The  term  applies  only  to  cattle. 
broncho,  n.     A  half-tamed  animal,  applicable  alike  to  horses,  mules, 
burros    and    cattle.      (Sp.:     broncho,    rough,    sturdy,    wild.) 
Pro.  brong'-ko.     Com.  all  parts  W.     Cf.  Mustang. 
a.     Wild,  rough,  uncouth.     Col.  all  parts  W. 
broom  tail,  n.      An  undersized  or  poorly  developed  pony.     Col.  SW. 
broomy,  n.     See  above. 
brow  band,  n.     That  part  of  a  bridle  or  halter  which  passes  before 

and  at  the  base  of  an  animal's  ears. 
browse,  n.    The  leaves  and  twigs  of  brush.     Pro.  browce. 

V.     To  eat  browse.     Pro.  browze. 
buck,  n.     (1)  An  uncastrated  goat.     Also  frequently  used  in  refer- 
ence to  an  uncastrated  sheep.     Col.  AS. 
(2)  An  Indian  (male).     Col.  W. 
V.     (1)  To  cut  a  tree  stem  into  log  lengths. 

(2)  The  action  of  an  animal  in  attempting  to  unseat  the  rider 
by  means  of  a  series  of  sudden,  irregular  jumps. 
buckaroo,  n.     Vaquero   (q.v.).      Pro.  buck-a-roo',  or  buck-kay'-roe. 

Col.  SW. 
bucker,  n.     (1)  One  who  cuts  tree  stems  into  log  lengths. 

(2)  An  animal  that  bucks. 
buck-rim,   n.     An  obsolescent    style   of   cantle.     It  differs  from   a 
bound  cantle  in  having  the  rear  side  of  its  edge  fitted  with  a 


GLOSSARY  383 

rim  sometimes  2  inches  wide  and  set  at  right  angles  to  it. 
The  term  probably  originates  from  the  rim's  frequent  utili- 
zation as  a  handhold  when  an  animal  pitches  or  bucks. 
bug,  n.  An  improvised  lantern  made  by  fastening  a  candle  in  a 
tin  can  and  fitting  the  latter  with  a  wire  bail  or  handle. 
Com.  all  parts  W.  Also  col.  same  section  for  "  lantern." 
bugs,  n.     Col.  all  parts  W.  for  "  screw  worms." 

"To   have   the   bugs":    to    be   tubercular.     Col.   all  parts   W. 
Com.  SW. 
bulge,  n.     The  outward  swell  at  either  side  of  a  saddle  fork. 
bull,  n.     An  uncastrat:d  male  of  the  ox  kind. 

V.     A  common  term  used  among  stockmen  in  reference  to  a 
cow's  desire  to  copulate. 
bulldog,  V.     A  very  rough  and  more  or  less  dangerous  form  of  amuse- 
ment practiced   by   cattlemen   and   expert  horsemen  of  the 
West.     The  bulldogger  leaves  the  saddle  at  the  moment  his 
mount  carries  him  alongside  a  steer,   alights  with  his  body 
on  the  steer's  neck  or  on  its  head  between  the  horns,  seizes 
a  horn  in  either  hand,  and  then  throws  the  steer  either  by 
sheer  brute  strength  or  else  bj'  twisting  its  head  to  one  side 
and  holding  it  there  till  the  steer  becomes  exhausted  and  falls. 
bunk,  n.     (1)  A  bedstead  usually  built  against  and  attached  to  a 
waU. 
(2)   The  bolster  of  a  log  wagon, 
block:   The  block  attached  to  either  end  of  a  bolster  to  prevent 

logs  from  rolling  off. 
house:   A  house  used  as  sleeping-quarters. 
V.     To  sleep  in  a  bunk. 
butte,   n.     A   prominent  peak.      (French:     butte,   a  target,   a  land- 
mark.)    Pro.  beaut,  as  in  beauty.     Com.  W. 


cabin,  n.     A  small  building.     Col.  S.     Cf.  Shack. 

cabresto,    n.     A  hair  rope.     (Sp.:     cabresto,    a    hair    rope.)     Pro. 

cah-vrase'-toe.     Col.  SW. 
cache,  n.     (1)  A  secreted  place  in  which  articles  may  be  tempor- 
arily stored  or  hidden.     Pro.  cash. 
(2)  The  articles  stored  or  hidden  in  a  cache.     Com.  SW.  and 

parts  W. 
r.     To  hide  or  temporarily  store  articles. 
calico,  n.  or  a.     See  Pinto. 
calve,  V.     To  give  birth  to  a  calf. 

camino,    n.     A    road.     (Sp.:     camino,    a    road.)     Pro.  cah-me'-no. 
Col.  and  com.  SW. 


384   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

cannon,  n.     That  part  of  an    animal's  leg  between  the  knee  and 

pastern. 
canon,  n.     Col.  W.  for  a  deep  hollow  or  ravine.       (Sp.:    canon,    a 

hollow.)     Pro.  can'-yon. 
canthook,  n.     A  tool  used  in  logging.     Cf.  Peavy. 
cantinas,  n.     The  leather  bags  supplied  field  men  for  use  in  carrying 

papers,  blank  forms,  stationery,  etc.     (Sp.:    cantinas,  cellar, 

canteen.)     Pro.  can-teen'-as. 
canter,  n.     A  slow  gallop. 

V.     To  travel  at  a  slow  gallop. 
cantle,  n.     The  upright  rear  portion  of  a  saddle-seat. 
cap,  n.     (1)  A  small   tube  closed  at  one  end   and  loaded  with  a 

combustible  explosive  substance,  used  in  detonating  dynamite. 

(2)  The  surface  of  a  road  or  trail  bed.     In  this  case  the  word 

"  cap  "  refers  to  the  material  used  rather  than  to  the 

surface  presented  to  travel.     Cf.  Tread  (4). 

cast,  V.     To  throw  an  animal  to  the  ground  and  hold  it  there  by 

means  of  ropes. 
cavallo,  n.     Col.  SW.  for  horse.     (Sp.:    cavallo  or  caballo,  a  horse.) 

Pro.  cah-wah'-yo. 
cayuse,  n.     Col.  W.  and  SW.  for  horse.     The  cayuse  proper  is  a 

species  of  small  inbred  pony  originated  by  the  Cayuse  Indians. 

Pro.  ki'-use  or  ki-use'-y. 
center  fire,  n.     Col.  all  parts  W.  for  a  single  cinch  rigged  saddle. 
chafe,  n.     A  leather  guard  attached  to  a  cinch  ring  to  prevent  iu- 

juries  to  an  animal's  side. 
V.     To  make  sore  by  rubbing. 
chap,  V.     To  whip  with  a  pair  of  chaparejos  or  a  heavy  belt.     A 

rough  form  of  amusement  or  punishment  indulged  in  in  most 

parts  W.  when  a  "  tenderfoot  "  is  to  be  initiated  or  an  offender 

punished.     Pro.  shap. 
chaparejos,  n.     Seatless  leather  or  canvas  trousers  or  leggings  worn 

as    a    protection    against    brush.     (Sp. :     diaparejos,    leather 

trousers.)     Pro.  chop-ah-ray'-hos.     Com.  all  parts  W. 
chaps,  n.     Chaparejos.     Col.  all  parts  W.     Pro.  shaps. 
chestnut,  n.     (1)   The  tough,  horny  protuberance  appearing  above 

the  knees  and  below  the  hocks  at  the  inner  sides  of  the  leps 

of  horses,  mules,  and  burros.     A  smaller  chestnut  is  found  ^  t 

the  rear  of  the  pastern  and  is  surrounded  by  the  fetlock. 
(2)  A  chestnut-colored  animal, 
a.     Of  a  dark  bay  color. 
chink,  n.     A  Chinaman.     Col.  all  parts  W. 

V.     To  fill  the  crevices  of  a  wall  with  mud  or  other  material. 
chinking,  n.     The  material  used  in  filling  the  crevices  of  a  wall. 


GLOSSARY  385 

chock,  n.     A  log,  stone,  or  similar  article  placed  beneath  a  wheel  to 
prevent  it  from  revolving. 
V.     To  place  an  obstruction  beneath  a  wheel, 
block,    n.     The    obstruction    used    to    prevent    a    wheel    from 
revolving. 
choker,  n.     A  link  made  larger  at  one  end  than  at  the  other.     It  is 
usually  the  end  link  of  a  chain  and  is  used  in  lieu  of  a  hook. 
Other  links  pass  freely  through  the  wide  end,  but  are  held 
securely  when  dropped  edgewise  into  the  narrow  end.     Some- 
times known  as  a  "  choke  hook." 
cholla,  n.     A  genus  of  herbaceous  plants    indigenous    to  SW.  and 
some  parts  of  W.     It  bears  a  tall,  woody  central  stalk  spring- 
ing from  a  low  clump  of  tough,  pointed  leaves,  and  is  variously 
known  as  jnicca,  mescal,  century  plant,  agave  and  American 
aloe.     (Sp. :   cholla,  skull,  judgment.)     Pro.  choy'-yah. 
chops,  n.     Coarsely  ground  corn. 

chuck,  n.     (1)  An  instrument  used  for  holding  a  tool  so  it  may  be 
rotated. 
(2)   Food,  provisions.     Col.  all  parts  W. 
V.     To  throw  the  rider.     Col.  W. 

ribs,  n.     The  first  ribs  back  of  the  shoulders.     Applies  to  cattle, 
steak,  n.     The  steak  immediately  over  the  chuck  ribs, 
wagon,  n.     The  wagon  used  in  transporting  food,  bedding,  and 
other  supplies  on  a  "  cow  works." 
chum  drill,  n.     A  long  drill  for  use  by  two  men  in  drilling  stone. 

V.     To  operate  a  churn  drill 
cinch,  n.     A  saddle  girth.     (Sp.:   cincha,  a  band,  a  fastening). 

V.     To  make  a  saddle  girth  fast. 
clip,  n.     (1)   The  hook  at  the  end  of  a  single-tree  into  which  the 
tug  or  trace  is  fastened. 
(2)   The  amount  of  wool  or  mohair  taken  from  a  band  of  sheep 
or  goats  in  one  season.   Com.  among  sheep  and  goat  raisers. 
V.     (1)   To  shear  an  animal's  hair  or  wool  close  to  the  body. 

(2)  To  shear  sheep  or  goats. 

(3)  To  remove  the  tuft  of  hair,  or  fetlock,  at  an  animal's  pastern. 
cockeye,  n.     The  eye  at  the  end  of  a  tug  or  trace  through  which 

the  single-tree  clip  passes. 

comb,  n.     The  peak  of  a  roof. 

concha,  n.  A  metal  or  leather  button.  '  (Sp.:  concha,  a  silver  shell.) 
Pro.  cont'-shah. 

cord,  n.  A  measure  of  wood  8  feet  long,  4  feet  high,  and  4  feet  wide. 
V.     To  arrange  wood  symmetrically  for  measurement. 

cork,  V.  To  injure  one  hoof  by  a  blow  from  the  shoe  on  the  oppo- 
site hoof.  Cf.  Interi'ere,  Forge,  and  Overreach.  Col. 
among  horsemen  for  ''  ?alk." 


386   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

coronet,  n.     That  part  of  an  animal's  leg  at  the  junction  of  the 

hair  and  hoof  and  from  which  the  hoof  grows. 
corral,  n.     A  small  enclosure  in  which  to  confine  stock.     (Sp. :  corral, 
enclosure,  yard,  playhouse.)     Pro.  ko-rel'.     Com.  all  parts  W. 
Cf.  Lot. 
V.     To  enclose  stock  in  a  corral. 
See  Trap  corral. 
coupling-pole,  n.     See  Reach. 
cow  outfit,  n.     A  cattle  ranch. 

works,  n.     The  operations  involved  in  rounding  up  and  branding 
cattle. 
cows,  n.     A  general  term  used  by  stockmen,  particularly  in  all  parts 

W.,  in  reference  to  cattle  regardless  of  age  or  sex. 
coyote,  n.     A  small  species  of  wolf.      (Mexican:    coyotl,   a  sneak.) 

Pro.  ki'-yote  or  ki-yo'-te. 
crab,  n.     A  geared  machine  used  in  raising  or  erecting  hea\'y  weights. 
It  is  operated  by  means  of  one  or  two  cranks,  the  loose  end 
of  the  intake  cable  running  from  the  drum  to  a  snub-post. 
cramp,  v.     To  turn  the  front  wheels  of  a  vehicle  out  of  line  with 
the  rear  wheels  to  facilitate  turning  the  vehicle  by  backing  it. 
crib,  n.     A  pen  used  for  the  confinement  of  stone  which  is  to  serve 
as  piers. 
V.     To  gnaw,   bite,   or  suck  posts,   poles,   trees,  mangers,   etc. 
The  term  applies  usually  to  horses  only. 
cribber,  n.     An  animal  addicted  to  cribbing. 
crimp,  n.     The  crease  which  binds  a  cap  to  the  fuse. 

V.     To  compress  the  open  end  of  a  cap  about  the  fuse. 
crosscut,  n.     An  opening  running  at  about  right  angles  to  a  mine 
tunnel. 
V.     To  run  a  cut  out  at  one  side  of  a  tunnel, 
saw,  n.     A  saw  having  teeth  so  constructed  as  to  cut  across  the 

grain  of  a  timber, 
saw  (two-man),  n.     A    crosscut   saw    fitted    with  a  handle  at 
either  end  and  designed  for  use  by  two  men. 
crow  bar,  n.     A  heavy  iron  bar  beveled  on  two  sides  of  the  point 

and  used  in  moving  heavy  weights.     Cf.  Pinch  bar. 
crown,  n.     (1)  The  top  of  a  tree. 

(2)  That  part  of  a  bridle,  hackamore  or  halter  which  passes 

upward  over  an  animal's  head  back  of  the  ears. 

(3)  The  upper  surface  of  an  animal's  tooth. 

fire,  n.     A  fire  occurring  in  the  tops  or  crowns  of  timber.     Com. 
NW. 
crutch,  n.     (1)   A  pole  or  other  timber  inserted  in  a  wheel  in  such  a 
way  that  the  wheel's  strength  is  maintained  after  the  dish 
has  been  lost. 


GLOSSARY  387 

crutch,  (n)    (2)  A  pole  placed  under  the  end  of  an  axle  and  supported 
from   the  bed  in    such  a  way  that    the    wagon  may  be 
moved   by  sliding:    used  when  a  wheel  has   been   broken 
down. 
curb  strap,  n.     The  strap  which  passes  from  one  bit  ring  to  the 
other  beneath  an  animal's  jaws.     Used  as  a  means  of  better 
control, 
cut,  n.     (1)  A  trench  made  through  high  ground  in  order  to  maintain 
a  uniform  grade. 
(2)  A  piece  of  meat  or  a  steak. 
V.     (1)  To  separate  certain  stock  from  a  herd. 
(2)  To  castrate. 

D 
dally,  n.     The  turn  of  a  rope  about  a  saddle-horn. 

V.     To  take  several  turns  of  a  rope  about  a  saddle-horn  in  such 
a  way  that  slack  may  be  taken  up  or  paid  out  quickly  if 
necessary. 
dewlap,  n.     (1)  The  pendulous  skin  along  the  under  side  of  a  cow's 
neck. 
(2)  An  identification  mark. 

V.     To  make  an  incision  in  the  dewlap  for  purposes  of  identi- 
fication. 
diangling,  a.  or  adv.     Diagonally.     Col.  S.  and  SE. 
dike,  n.     A  line  of  rock  projecting  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
dish,  n.     In  an  upright  wheel,  the  difference  in  distance  horizontally 
between  the  outer  spoke  surfaces  at  the  hub  and  the  outer 
edge  of  the  rim, 
faced,  a.     With  a  noticeably  sunken  profile. 
dobe,  n.     Adobe.     Col.  SW.     See  Adobe. 

dock,  V.  To  cut  away  a  portion  of  an  animal's  tail.  The  operation  is 
frequently  performed  on  lambs  at  the  time  they  are  castrated 
and  marked.  In  some  sections  the  meaning  of  the  term  is 
restricted  to  removal  of  the  hair  only,  and  may  also  be  known 
as  "  bobbing." 
doe,  n.     A  ewe  (q.v.).     Col.  SW. 

dogey,  n.     A  motherless  young  calf.     Usually  applied  to  one  that 
has   lost   its  mother  through  death.     Cf.   Maverick.     Pro. 
doe'-gay.     Col.  W. 
double-jack,  n.     A  sledge  requiring  the  use  of  both  hands  in  drilling 
stone. 
V.     To  drill  stone,  one  man  holding  the  drill,  the  other  striking, 
tree,  w.     That  part  of  a  wagon  gear  to  which  the  single-trees 
are  attache!.     Cf.  Evener. 
drench,  n.     A  quantity  of  liquid  medicine  to  be  given  an  animal. 
V.     To  administer  liquid  medicine  to  an  animal. 


388   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

drift,  n.     (1)  See  Crosscut. 

(2)  A  herd's  gradual  movement  to  a  new  range  or  location. 
V.     (1)   To  move  gradually  to  a  new  range  or  location. 
(2)   To    depart   hurriedly    and    continue    a   journey.     Col.    W. 
fence,  n.     A  length  of  fence  provided  for  directing  the  move- 
ments of  stock. 
drill,  n.     (1)  An  instrument  used  in  driving  holes  in  stone. 

(2)  An  augur  used  in  boring  holes  in  either  wood  or  metal. 
V.     Col.  most  parts  W.,  meaning  to  depart. 
drop,  V.     To  give  birth  to  a  calf.     Thus  a  calf  is  said  to  be  "  dropped  " 

or  "  calved  "  rather  than  born.     Cf.  Calve. 
dugout,  w.     (1)   An  excavation  made  in  the  side  of  a  hill  and  used  as 
a  room. 
(2)  A  water-trough  made  by  hewing  oat  the  inside  of  a  log. 
dump,  n.     The  accumulation  of  refuse  material  at  the  mouth  of  a 
tunnel  or  shaft. 
V.     To  throw  the  rider.     Col.  AS. 
dutchman,  n.     A  plank  nailed  to  a  tree  for  the  purpose  of  serving 
as  a  support  for  barbed  or  other  wires,  but  designed  primarily 
as  a  means  of  preventing  the  wire  from  being  imbedded  in 
subsequent  growth  of  the  tree. 

E 

earmark,  n.     An  incision  made  in  an  animal's  ear  for  purposes  of 

identification. 
V.     To  make  an  incision  in  an  animal's  ear. 
end  gate,  n.     The  upright  board  forming  the  end  of  a  wagon  bed 

or  box.     Usually  known  as  "  head  "  gate,  front,  and  "  tail  " 

gate  or  "  tail  board,"  rear. 
epidemic,  n.     A  disease  attacking  great  numbers  simultaneously. 
evener,  n.     See  Double-tree. 
ewe,  n.     A  female  sheep.     See  Doe. 
eye  sj^ce,  n.     A  loop  made  in  a  rope  by  splicing  one  end  of  the  rope 

back  into  itself. 

F 

fell,  V.     To  cut  down  a  tree.     Also  spelled  "  fall,"  this  term  being 

col.  N.  and  S.  woods. 
feller,  n.     One  who  fells  trees.     Generally  called  "  faller." 
felloe,  n.     A  section  of  the  rim  of  a  wagon  wheel.     Frequently  called 

"  felly  "  and  "  feller." 
fender,  n.     The  broad  leather  between  the  rider's  leg  and  the  animal 

body,  attached  to  the  stirrup  strap. 
fetlock,  n.     The  tuft  of  hair  at  an  animal's  pastern  joint. 


GLOSSARY  389 

Ally,  n.     A  young  mare.     Usually  applied  to  a  mare  up  to  the  birth 

of  her  first  colt, 
fire  brand,  n.     (1)  A  brand  made  by  burning. 

(2)  A  piece  of  burning  material, 
fistula,  n.     An  abscess  having  tubes  or  pipes  leading  to  an  internal 

cavity.     Frequently,  though  improperly,   called  "  fistulo." 
flag,  n.     The  pole  used  by  a  surveyor  to  indicate  where  a  line  is  to 
be  run. 
V.     (1)   To  set  a  flag  pole. 

(2)  To  stop  a  runaway  horse  or  team.  Col.  W. 
flake,  n.  One  of  the  loose  sections  of  a  bale  of  hay.  These  may 
varj'  in  number  in  a  bale  from  two  to  a  dozen  or  more,  de- 
pending upon  the  length  and  tangle  of  the  grass  stems.  It  is, 
therefore,  misleading  to  say  that  one  flake  or  two  flakes  or 
any  other  number  of  flakes  should  be  sufiicient  haj'  for  one 
feed. 
foal,  n.     A  very  young  colt. 

V.     To  give  birth  to  a  colt.     Thus  a  colt  is  said  to  be  "  foaled  " 
(improperly  called  "  foalded  ")  rather  than  born, 
fool  killer,  n.     A  broken  branch  left  hanging  in  the  top  of  a  tree. 

Com,  AS.  where  logging  is  carried  on. 
foretop,  n.     That  part  of  an  animal's  mane  which  hangs  down  over 

the  face, 
forge,  n.     A  specially  constructed  furnace  used  by  blacksmiths. 
V.     (1)   To  make  an  article  of  iron. 

(2)  An  animal's  action  in  striking  the  heel  of  the  forefoot  with 
the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  in  traveling.     Cf.  Overreach. 
frog,  n.     The  V-shaped  ridge  on  the  sole  of  a  horse's  hoof. 

V.     To   putter   about   in   an   aimless   manner.     Col.    W.     The 

term  doubtless  originates  from  the  one  used  in  playing 

the  game  of  Solo  or  Sluff,  wherein  a  "frog"  is  the  lowest 

bid  that  can  be  made. 

fuse,   n.     A  slender,  flexible  tube  filled  with  combustible  material, 

which  when  ignited  conveys  a  flame  to  the  cap  inserted  in 

a  dynamite  cartridge. 


gag  runner,  n.     The  iron  loop  through  which  the  check  rein  passes 

at  or  near  the  upper  end  of  the  bridle  cheek, 
gall,  71.      (1)  An  abrasion  caused  by  friction  of  a  saddle  or  harness. 
(2)   A  knot-like  growth  on  leaves,  twigs,  and  branches  of  trees. 
V.     To  abrade  an  animal's  skin  with  an  improperly  fitting  saddle 
or  harness. 
gallows  frame,  n.     A  structure  erected  over  the  mouth  of  a  shaft  to 
facilitate  hoisting. 


390   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

gambrel,  n.  A  stick  used  by  butchers  to  keep  the  legs  of  a  carcass 
spread  well  apart  during  the  operation  of  cleaning  or  washing. 
The  ends  are  sharpened  and  are  thrust  into  the  legs  between 
the  bone  and  the  ham  string,  and  in  addition  to  spreading  the 
legs  the  gambrel  may  also  be  used  as  a  means  of  support  for 
the  carcass. 

gather,  n.     The  difference  in  distance  between  the  front  rim  edges 
of  the  same  pair  of  wheels  as  compared  with  the  distance  be- 
tween the  rear  rim  edges. 
V.     (1)  To  assemble  stock  in  a  herd. 
(2)  To  harvest.     Col.  S.  and  SE. 

gear,  n.     (1)   The  framework  of  a  wagon  exclusive  of  the  bed  or  box. 
(2)   Harness.     Col.  S.  and  SE. 

gee,  n.  A  word  of  command  used  by  teamsters  to  turn  a  team  to 
the  right. 

gelding,  n.     A  castrated  horse. 

gilt,  n.  A  young  sow.  Commonly  applied  to  one  up  to  the  birth 
of  her  first  litter  of  pigs. 

gin  poles,  n.     Poles  used  in  er  cting  heavy  timbers  or  beams. 

glut,  n.  A  large  wooden  wedge  used  in  opening  timbers  after  they 
have  been  partly  split  open  with  smaller  iron  wedges. 

goose  neck,  n.  An  iron  hook  fitted  to  the  forward  end  of  a  wagon 
pole  and  provided  as  a  means  of  attaching  other  teams  to  the 
pole.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  hook  which  connects 
the  pole  with  an  ox  yoke. 

grain  rope,  n.  The  rope  used  in  tying  sacks  of  grain  or  other  bulky 
articles  to  a  pack  saddle. 

Greaser,  n.     A  Mexican.     Col.  all  parts  W. 

Greener,  n.     A  tenderfoot  (q.v.).     Col.  all  parts  W. 

ground  fire,  n.     A  fire  occurring  in  peaty  ground.     Com.  NE. 

grout,  71.  Concrete  made  very  thin  in  order  to  facilitate  pouring  and 
settling  in  narrow  forms. 

H 

hackamore,  n.     A  halter-like  article  used  in  breaking  or  controlling 

horses.     See  Jaquima. 
hair  brand,  n.     An  indistinct  brand  resulting  from  insufficient  heat 

or  pressure  of  the  iron  at  the  time  the  brand   is  applied. 

Occasionally  used  in  reference  to  a  tar  or  paint  brand,  and 

frequently  in   referring  to   characters  burned   or   clipped   in 

an  animal's  hair  or  wool. 
ham  string,  n.     The  large  tendon  which  connects  with  the  point  of 

the  hock  in  an  animal's  leg. 
V.     To  make  lame  by  cutting  or  otherwise  injuring  the  ham 
string. 


GLOSSARY  391 

haw,  n.     A  word  of  command  used  by  teamsters  to  turn  a  team  to 

the  left. 
headstall,  n.     Halter;    the  leather  part  of  a  bridle. 
heifer,  n.     A  young  cow.     Commonly  applied   to   one  up  to   the 

birth  of  her  first  calf, 
herd,  n.     A  number  of  animals  grouped  together  or  owned  by  one 
person. 
V.     (1)   To  confine  stock  to  one  place  when  no  fences  are  avail- 
able. 
(2)  The  action  of  other  persons  in  preventing  a  pitching  animal 
from   colliding  with  posts,    trees,   etc.,   where  a  sudden 
stop  might  injure  either  it  or  the  rider  or  both.     Col.  W. 
hill  billy,  n.     A  mountaineer.     Col.  S.  and  SE.     Cf.  Ridge  runner. 
hip,  V.     To  injure  an  animal's  hip. 
hipped,  a.     Having  one  or  both  hips  injured. 

hobble,  n.     Any  article  used  in  tying  an  animal's  legs  together  to 
^revent  straying.     Frequently  spelled  "  hopple." 
V.     (1)   To  tie  an  animal's  legs  together. 

(2)  To  tie  the  stirrups  together  beneath  an  animal's  body.  A 
common  practice  among  horsemen  when  a  saddle  animal 
is  expected  to  pitch  vigorously.  Having  the  stirrups 
fastened  in  this  manner  provides  increased  facilities  for 
retaining  the  seat. 
honda,  n.     The  eye  in  the  end  of  a  rope.      (Sp.:    honda,  a  sling.) 

Pro.  hon'-doo. 
horse  camp,  n.     Winter  quarters  for  horses  used  in  handling  cattle. 

In  charge  of  a  "  wrangler"  (q.v.). 
hounds,  n.     The  parts  of  a  wagon  gear  which  brace  the  axles  on  the 
pole  and  reach.     Sometimes  spelled  "  hauns  "  and  "  hawns." 
housewife,  n.     A    cloth   or  leather  receptacle  for  sundries  used  in 
repairing  clothes. 


interfere,  v.  To  strike  the  ankle  or  pastern  joint  of  one  leg  with 
the  hoof  or  shoe  of  the  opposite  leg.     Cf.  Cork  and  Forge. 

iron,  n.  The  abbreviated  form  of  "  branding-iron."  Com.  all 
parts  W. 

J 

Jacob's  staff,  n.  The  iron-shod  wooden  pole  used  as  a  support  for 
a  compass.  Also  known  as  Jake  staff,  Jake  rod,  Jake  stick, 
Jake  pole,  Jim  rod,  Jim  pole  and  joy  stick. 

jaquima,  n.  An  Indian  word  from  which  the  word  "  hackamore  " 
is  derived.     Pro.  yak'-i-mah. 


392   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

jerk,  V.     To  dry  thin  strips  of  meat  in  the  sun. 

jerk  line,  n.  A  single  hne  used  in  guiding  a  team.  Customarily  one 
steady  pull  turns  the  team  to  the  right  and  three  short  jerks 
turn  it  to  the  left.  It  is  commonly  used  in  teams  of  four  or 
more  animals  and  is  attached  to  the  near  bit  ring  of  the 
near  lead  horse.  Other  animals  in  the  team  are  trained  to 
follow  the  lead  pair. 

jerky,  ?i.     Sun-dried  meat.     Com.  SW. 

jockey,  n.     The  leather  which  forms  the  side  of  a  saddle  seat  imme- 
diately over  the  fender, 
box,  n.     A  tool  box  built  against  an  end  gate, 
stick,  n.     A  stick  used  in  lieu  of  a  halter  rope  and  designed  to 
keep  a  vicious  animal  at  a  distance  from  the  attendant. 

jump  weld,  n.  The  attachment  of  the  end  of  one  iron  at  right 
angles  to  and  against  the  side  of  another. 

June  II,  n.  A  homestead  entered  in  a  National  Forest  under  the 
Act  of  June  11,  1906.     Col.  among  Forest  officers. 

K 

kak,  n.     A  saddle.     Sometimes  used  in  reference  to  a  very  old  horse. 

Col.  SW. 
kayak,  n.     A  box  frame  covered  with  rawhid6  and  used  in  packing 

loose  articles.     Also   spelled   "  kaiak  "   and   "  kyack."     Pro. 

ki'-ack.     Plural,  kyax. 
keel,  n.     Lumbermen's  designation  of  marking  crayon. 
kerf,   n.     The  opening  resulting  from   a  saw's  passage  through  a 

timber.     Commonly  expressed  in  fractions  of  an  inch. 
kid,  n.     A  young  goat. 

V.     To    give    birth    to    a    kid.     The    young    is    "  kidded  "    or 

"  dropped  "  rather  than  born. 
king  bolt,  n.     The  bolt  which  connects  the  forward  end  of  the  reach 

with  the  front  axle. 


lamb,  n.     A  young  sheep. 

V.     To   give   birth   to   a  lamb.     The  young  is   "  lambed  "   or 

"  dropped  "  rather  than  born,  and  the  ewe  is  said  to  "  lamb  " 

rather  than  to  give  birth  to  young. 
lariat,  n.     A  noosed  rope  used  in  catching  stock.      (Sp. :    la  reata,  a 

rawhide  rope  used  in  tying  animals  together.)     Pro.  lary-et'. 

Cf.  Reata. 
V.     To  catch  stock  with  a  noosed  rope. 
lash  rope,  n.     The  rope  used  in  tying  the  top  pack  to  the  grain 

pack  or  pack  saddle. 


GLOSSARY  393 

lasso,  n.     A  noosed  rope  used  in  catching  stock.     (Sp. :  lazo,  a  noose.) 

V.     To  catch  stock  with  a  noosed  rope.     Col.  W.,  "  lass." 
latigo,  71.     The  leather  strap  which  connects  the  cinch  with  the  rig 

of  a  saddle.      (Sp.:   latigar,  to  lash  or  make  fast.) 
lead,  11.     The  left,  or  near,  side  of  a  horse,  wagon,  etc.     Pro.  leed. 
horse,  n.     The  near  horse  in  a  team.     Also  a  horse  that  is  to  be 

led. 
side,  n.     The  left,  or  near,  side  of  an  animal  or  team, 
team,  n.     The  foremost  animals  in  a  team  of  four  or  more, 
lean,  a.     Applied  to  mortar  carrj-ing  a  minimum  amount  of  lime  or 

cement. 
lean-to,  n.     A  shed  or  side  room.     Col.  S.  and  some  parts  W. 
lepe,  n.     A  motherless  calf.      (Sp. :    lepe,  a  motherless  calf.)     Pro. 

lep'-py.     Col.  SW.     Cf.  Dogey. 
light,  V.     To  dismount.     Col.  S.  and  SE. 

lightered,   n.     Dry  pitch  pine.     Also  known  as   "  lightwood,"   the 
term  probably  originating  from  the  quick,  bright  blaze  coming 
from  the  burning  wood.     Col.  S.  and  SE. 
lobo,  n.     A  species  of  wolf  that  runs  or  hunts  alone.     (Sp.:    loho, 

a  wolf.)     Pro.  loe'-boe.     Also  known  as  "  loafer  "  wolf. 
loco,  n.     A  poisonous  range  plant.      (Sp.:   loco,  mad,  crazy.) 
a.  Crazy.     Col.  W. 
V.     To  drive  frantic.     Col.  W. 
lode,  n.     A  vein  containing  metallic  ore.     Pro.  load, 
logey,  a.     Dull,  tired,  listless.     Applied  to  a  wornout  horse.     Col.  W. 

Pro.  loe'-gay. 
log  scale,  n.     (1)  A  rule  or  scale  which  shows  the  contents  of  a  log 
in  board  feet. 
(2)   The  number  of  board  feet  contained  in  all  the  logs  taken 
from   a   certain   area   or   sawed   at   a  certain  time.     Cf. 
Mill  run. 
lot,  n.     An  enclosure  for  stock.     Col.  S.  and  SE.     Cf.  Corral.    Verb, 

Pex. 
lunger,   n.     Col.   W.,   especially   SW.,   for  a  person   suffering  from 
pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

M 

manana,  n.  Col.  W.,  especially  SW.,  for  a  person  who  continually 
and  habitually  procrastinates.  (Sp.:  manana,  tomorrow.) 
Pro.  man-yan'-ah. 

marking-hatchet,  n.  A  light  ax  bearing  the  raised  letters  US  on 
the  poll  and  used  by  Forest  officers  in  marking  timber.  Also 
known  as  "  branding-hatchet,"  and  "marking-ax." 

marlin-spike,  n.  A  sharp-pointed  instrument  used  in  separating 
the  strands  of  a  rope. 


394   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

mash,  n.     A  thick  mixture  of  bran  and  water. 

mattock,   n.     A  double  bitted  tool  used  in  loosening  and  moving 
earth.     One  bit  is  in  line  with  the  handle,  the  other  at  right 
angles  to  it. 
maul,  n.     A  heavy  wooden  mallet  or  hammer.     It  differs  from  a 
beetle  in  having  the  head  and  handle  in  one  piece  and  in  line 
lengthwise  with  each  other.     Cf.  Beetle. 
maverick,  n.     An  unbranded  calf.     Usually  applied  to  one  that  has 
left  its  mother  after  being  weaned.     The  term  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  Texas,  where  one  Maverick,  observing  that  other 
stock  raisers  branded  their  animals,  concluded  the  most  dis- 
tinctive evidence  of  ownership  that  he  could  use  would  be 
the  absence  of  any  brand  whatever  on  his  stock.     He  accord- 
ingly claimed  all  unbranded  stock. 
mecate,  n.     A  hemp  rope.     (Sp.:   mecate,  a  hemp  rope.)     Col.  SW. 

Pro.  may-cot'-ay. 
mesa,  n.     A  high  plateau  or  flat-topped  peak.     (Sp.:  mesa,  a  table.) 

Com.  W.     Pro.  may'-sah. 
mill,  n.     (1)   An  establishment  where  ore  is  crushed  or  refined  or 
lumber  is  sawed  or  dressed. 
(2)   The  result  of  a  herd  of  frightened  horses  or  cattle  swimming 
frantically  about  in  a  circle,  each  trying  to  escape  from 
the  water  by  climbing  upon  another's  back.     Com.  all 
parts  W. 
V.     (1)   To  crush  and  refine  ore. 

(2)  To  swim  frantically  about  in  a  circle.  Sometimes  used  in 
reference  to  the  restless  and  uneasy  movements  of  a  herd 
on  land.  Also  applied  to  a  throng  of  people  who  con- 
tinually move  about.  Col.  W. 
run,  n.  The  number  of  board  feet  of  lumber  actually  sawed 
out  regardless  of  the  amount  indicated  by  a  log  scale. 
monument,  n.     A  pile  of  stone  set  up  to  mark  a  lin3  or  corner  of 

land. 
morral,  n.     A  feed  bag  designed  to  be  suspended  from  an  animal's 
head.     (Sp.:    morral,   a  feed  bag.)     Pro.  mo-rel'.     Com.  all 
parts  W. 
muck,  n.     Mud  and  refuse  material  from  a  mine. 

V.     To  loosen  and  remove  muck. 
mucker,  n.     One  who  removes  muck. 

mud,  n.      An  injection  used   by  drillers  to  indicate  that  for  some 
reason  striking  must  be  temporarily  suspended. 
Also  Col.  AS.  for  "  mortar." 
muley,   n.      A   naturally   hornless   individual   of   any   horn-bearing 
species.     Also  applied  to  a  McClellan  saddle  or  any  other 
saddle  not  fitted  with  a  horn. 


GLOSSARY  395 

muley,   a.  Without  horns.     The  term  can  not  be  applied  to  an  animal 

that  has  been  dehorned, 
mustang,  n.     See  Broncho.     (Sp.:   mesteno,  wild.) 

N 

nanny,  n.  A  ewe.  Col.  among  sheep  and  goat  raisers.  Usually- 
applied  to  a  female  goat. 

near  side,  n.     An  animal's  left  side.     See  Lead  side. 

neat,  a.     Applied  to  mortar  having  only  lime  or  cement  for  the  body. 

neck  yoke,  n.  See  Breast  toke.  In  reference  to  the  term  as  applied 
to  work  with  oxen,  the  word  "  neck  "  is  usually  omitted  and 
"ox"  is  frequently,  though  not  always,  substituted. 

nester,  n.     A  settler,  usually  a  homesteader.     Col.  W. 

nigh  side,  n.     See  Near  side.     Col.  S.  and  SE. 

o 

off  color,  a.  A  term  applied  to  stock  not  colored  like  others  of  the 
herd.  Thus,  a  black  cow  in  a  herd  of  Herefords  would  be 
called  "  off  color,"  and  in  most  instances  would  not  sell  for 
as  high  a  price  as  the  Herefords,  although  the  latter  might 
not  be  as  large  or  in  as  good  condition. 

off  side,  n.     An  animal's  right  side. 

orejano,  -a,  n.  A  maverick,  male  or  female,  respectively.  (Sp.: 
orejano,  -a,  unclaimed.)     Col.  SW.     Pro.  ory-han'ay. 

outlaw,  n.  A  term  applied  to  a  horse  too  wild  or  vicious  to  be 
ridden  or  worked.  Also  applied  to  other  animals  that  have 
never  been  branded,  or  having  been  branded  have  never 
received  any  further  attention  from  their  owners,  and  have 
been  allowed  to  run  vn\d. 

overreach,  v.  To  place  the  hind  foot  at  a  point  on  the  ground  in 
advance  of  where  the  fore  foot  was  set.  Improperly  called 
"  forging."     Cf.  Interfere. 

P 
pacer,  n.     An  animal  that  moves  both  legs  of  the  same  side  simul- 
taneously. 
paint  brand,  n.     See  Tar  brand, 
paling,  n.     See  Picket.     Col.  S. 

pannier,  n.     A  leather  or  canvas  bag  used  in  packing.     Cf.  Kayak, 

peavy,  n.     A  tool  used  in  moving  logs.     It  differs  from  a  canthook 

in  having  the  lower  end  armed  with  a  pike  instead  of  a  lip, 

picket,  n.     One  of  the  upright  pieces  in  a  fence  made  of  sharpened 

stakes  or  scantlings. 

V.     To  tie  an  animal  to  a  picket  pin. 

pin,  n.     An  iron  stake  to  be  used  in  lieu  of  a  post  and  to  which 

a  grazing  animal  may  be  tied, 
rope,  n.     The  rope  by  which  an  animal  is  tied  to  a  picket  pin. 
piebald,  n.  or  a.     See  Pinto. 


396   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

pinch  bar,  n.  A  heavy  iron  bar  beveled  on  one  side  of  the  point 
and  used  in  moving  or  raising  heavy  weights.     Cf.  Crow  bar. 

pinto,  n.  A  spotted  pony.  Also  known  W.  and  SW,  as  piebald, 
calico,  paint,  and  speckled.      (Sp.:   pinto,  spotted.) 

pitch,  n.     (1)   The  degree  of  slope  of  a  roof. 

(2)  The  difference  in  distance  between  the  lower  rim  edges  of 

the  same  pair  of  wheels  as  compared  with  the  distance 
between  the  upper  rim  edges.  Frequently  known  as 
"  tread  "  or  "  set." 

(3)  A  name  applied  to  the  sap  of  a  pine  tree. 

V.     A  horse's  action  in  trying  to  unseat  ifs  rider.     Pitching  dif- 
fers from  bucking  in  being  more  vigorous  and  irregular, 
and  action  is  prolonged  to  a  greater  degree. 
placer,  n.     The  short  term  for  "  placer  claim  "  or  "  placer  mine." 
Nearly  all  such  claims  or  mines  are  located  on   gold-bearing 
streams,  where  gold-dust  may  be  s^arated  from  the  earth  by 
"  panning,"  an  operation  in  which  a  flat,  shallow  pan  is  filled 
with  earth  and  water  and  then  shaken  vigorously.     The  water 
is  allowed  to  spUl  gradually  and  takes  the  refuse  material 
with  it,  the  gold  settling  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan.     Another 
method  is  to  perform  a  similar  operation  by  means  of  an 
apparatus  known  as  a   "  rocker."     Still  another  method  of 
securing   the  gold  is  to  throw  the  gold-bearing  earth  into  a 
"  flume,"  through  which  water  flows  swiftly.     Bars  or  "  rif- 
fles "   across  the  bottom  of  the  flume  catch  the  gold  as  it 
settles.     Pro.  "plaser,"  as  in  plaster. 
point,  n.     A  prominent  peak  or  landmark.     Col.  S.     Cf.  Butte. 
V.     (1)   To  mark  an  animal's  ear  with  both  an  over-  and  an 

under-slope,  thus  leaving  it  pointed. 
(2)   To  ride  ahead  of  a  herd  of  cattle  being  moved  and  thus 
supply  them  with  an  object  to  follow. 
pole,  n.     A  wagon  tongue. 

strap,  n.     Thje  strap  of  a  harness  which  connects  the  breast 
yoke  of  the  wagon  gear  with  the  belly  band  or  breeching 
of  the  harness. 
poll,  n.     The  head  of  an  animal  or  tool. 

pommel,  n.     The  highest  part  of  a  saddle  immediately  before  the 
seat, 
slicker,  n.     A  water-proof  coat  having  very  long,  wide  skirts 
designed  to  protect  both  the  rider  and  the  saddle  from 
rain. 
poncho,  n.     A  sleeveless,  water-proof  garment  with  a  hole  at  the 
center,   through  which  the   wearer's   head   is   thrust.     (Sp.: 
poncho,  \azy.)    (Col.  Sp.:  ponc/io,  a  sleeveless  garment.)    Com. 
W.     Pro.  pont'-cho. 


GLOSSARY  397 

port,  n.     The  arch  in  the  bar  of  a  bridle  bit. 

pull,  n.     The  distance,  on  the  ground,  between  a  telephone  pole  and 

the  point  where  it  should  be  set  to  be  in  direct  line  with  the 

first  pole  at  either  side  of  it. 
V.     To  pull  leather:  to  seize  some  part  of  the  saddle  with  one 
or  both  hands  when  an  animal  pitches, 
puncher,  n.     One  who  works  with  cattle.     Col.  all  parts  W.     The 

term   originates   from   the   practice   of   prodding   cattle   that 

persist  in  lying  down  while  being  shipped  by  rail  or  boat. 
puncture,  n.     A  small  hole  resulting  from  the  entrance  of  a  nail, 

wire  or  similar  article  in  a  horse's  hoof. 


quarter  corner,  n.     A  corner  set  approximately  half-way  between 
section  corners  on  the  same  line, 
crack,  n.     A  perpendicular  crack  in  an  animal's  hoof, 
quartering,  a.     Diagonally, 
quirt,   n.     A  short  riding- whip   of   sewn  or  plaited  leather.     (Sp.; 

cuerda,  a  rope.) 
quitter,  n.     A  balky  animal. 
quittor,  n.     An  abscess  at  the  coronet. 

E, 

racker,  n.     An  animal  that  travels  in  a  manner  between  that  of  a 

trot  and  a  gallop. 
rake,  ?i.     The  distance  from  the  vertical  to  which  a  telephone  pole 

inclines  outward  when  set  in  a  curve.     Designed  to  offset  the 

extra  strain  imposed  by  pull  (q.v.). 
ram,  n.     An  uncastrated  sheep, 

V.     To  tamp  concrete, 
ranch,  n.     Either  a  stock-  or  grain-farm  of  any  size.     Contrary  to  a 

general  belief  of  persons  from  the  East,  a  ranch  may  consist 

of  no  more  than  two  or  three  acres,  or  may  even  include  no 

more  than  a  fraction  of  one  acre.      (Sp. :  rancho,  a  stock  farm.) 
V.     To  operate  a  ranch. 
ranchero,  n.     A  stock  raiser  or  a  farmer.      (Sp. :    ranchero,  one  who 

conducts   the   business   of   a   ranch.)     Pro.    ranch-er-roo'   or 

ran-chay'-roe. 
range,    n.     (1)   The   strip   of   land   lying   between   north-and-south 

lines  located  approximately  6  miles  apart.     Such  a  strip  of 

land  is  described  as  being  east  or  west  of  a  given  meridian. 

(2)  The  area  upon  which  stock  grazes. 

(3)  The  forage  secured  from  a  range  by  stock. 
V.     To  graze  stock  on  a  certain  area 


398   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

raster,  n.     See  Arrastra. 

V.     To  crush  ore  in  an  axrastra. 
rattler,    n.     See   Roarer.     Also  the  abbreviated  form  for  "  rattle- 
snake." 
reach,  n.     (1)  The  pole  which  connects  the  front  and  rear  axle  of  a 
wagon. 
(2)  The  distance  an  animal  steps  in  traveling, 
plate,  n.     An  iron  plate  connecting  the  forward  ends  of  the 
rear  hounds  in  a  wagon  gear  and  securing  them  to  the 
reach. 
reata,  n.     A  rope,  usually  though  not  always  of  rawhide,  used  in 
catching  stock.      (Sp. :   la  reata,  a  rawhide  rope  used  for  tying 
animals  together.)     Pro,  ray-ah'-tah.     Com.  W.  and  SW. 
remuda,  n.     A  reserve  herd  of  mounts.     (Sp. :   remuda,  exchange;  a 
change  of  shift  when  stock  is  being  held  in  hf;rd.)     Pro.  ray- 
moo'tha.     Com.  SW. 
renegade,  n.     Sfee  Outlaw. 

rich,  a.     Applied  to  mortar  carrying  a  large  amount  of  lime  or  cement, 
rick,  n.     (1)  A  measure  of  wood  8  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  of  the 
same  width  as  the  length  of  the  sticks.     Cf.  Cord. 
(2)  A  windrow  of  freshly  cut  hay.     Com.  S. 
V.     (1)  To  pile  wood  symmetrically  for  measurement. 
(2)   To  rake  hay  into  long  piles  preparatory  to  removal  from 
the  field.     Col.  S. 
ride,  n.     A  journey  by  horseback.     Com.  AS. 

V.     To  work  with  cattle  or  other  stock. 
ridge  runner,  n.     A  mountaineer.     Col.  SW. 
rig,  n.     That  part  of  a  saddle  to  which  the  cinches  are  attached. 
rim,  n.     (1)  The  edge  of  a  mesa.     Com.  W. 

(2)  That  part  of  a  carriage  wheel  which  corresponds  to   the 
felloes  of  a  wagon  wheel.     It  differs  from  the  latter  in 
carrying  half  the  number  of  the  spokes  in  a  wheel  while 
a  felloe  carries  only  two  spokes, 
fire,  n.     Applied  to  a  single  cinch  rigged  saddle. 
rise,  n.     (1)  The  perpendicular  distance  between  the  plates  and  the 
comb  of  a  roof. 
(2)  A  gentle  slope.     Col.  S. 
rive,  V.     To  split  out  boards,  shakes  or  palings. 
roach,  v.     To  trim  an  animal's  mane  or"  tail.     Usually  applied  to 

mules. 
roan,  n.     A  roan-colored  animal. 

a.     Of  a  mixed  color,  consisting  usually  of  white  or  gray  spots 
in  bay. 
roarer,  n.     An  animal  that  breathes  in  an  audible  manner  as  the 
result  of  a  throat  affection. 


GLOSSARY  399 

rodeo,  n.     See  Roundup.     (Sp.:   rodcar,  to  go  a  roundabout  way.) 

Pro,  ro-day'-o  or  ro-day'-er.     Com.  NW.,  W.  and  SW. 
roll,  n.     A  stuffed  leather  pad  used   by  riders  to  prevent  injury 

against  the  saddle  fork  or  horn. 
rope,  n.  and  v.     See  Lasso. 

burn,  n.     An  injury  inflicted  on  an  animal's  leg  by  the  sliding 

motion  of  a  rope  drawn  swiftly  and  violently  against  it. 

rosette,  n.     An  ornamental  button  used  on  saddles  and  harness. 

It  differs  from  a  concha  usually  in  having  a  loop  at  the  back 

instead  of  eyes  through  the  center  for  the  passage  of  thongs  or 

straps. 
roughage,  n.     Grass,  hay,  fodder,  etc.     Com,  W. 
roughness,  n.     See  above.     Com.  S.  and  SE, 
roundup,  n.     The  assembling  of  all  or  a  part  of  the  stock  on  one 

range, 
V.     To  assemble  stock. 
rowel,  n.     The  spiked  wheel  of  a  spur,  or  the  roller  in  a  bit. 

V.     To  spur  an  animal  vigorously. 
rub  iron,  n.     An  iron  plate  attached  to  the  lower  corner  of  a  wagon 

bed  for  protection  of  the  bed  when  the  fore  wheel  is  cramped 

under  it. 
run,   n.     (1)   The   horizontal   distance  between   the  plate  and   the 

comb  of  a  roof. 

(2)  The  amount  of  ore  milled  or  lumber  sawed  at  one  time. 

(3)  The  country  covered  in  a  day's  cruise.     Col.  among  recon- 

noissance  men. 
V.     (l)   To  gallop  at  a  high  rate  of  speed. 

(2)  To  run  an  iron:  To  own,  lease  or  otherwise  handle  the  stock 

bearing  that  brand. 

(3)  To  run  a  brand:   To  change  it  by  superimposing  another 

upon  it. 
running  iron,  n.     A  straight  iron  rod  used  in  tracing  brands. 


S 

safety  belt,  n,     A  heavy  leather  belt  used  by  telephone  linemen. 

strap,  n.     A  heavy  leather  strap  used  by  telephone  linemen  in 
securing  themselves  to  a  pole  when  the  desired  height 
has  been  reached, 
sag,  n.     The  distance  below  the  horizontal  to  which  a  telephone 

wire  is  allowed  to  hang  at  or  near  the  center  of  the  span. 
scantling,   n.     A  thin,  narrow  strip  of  lumber.     The  term  usually 
applies    to    pieces   of   odd   lengths,  uneven    edges  and  other 
irregular  surfaces. 
scissor  bill,  n.     A  mountaineer.     Com,  S,  and  SE.     Cf,  Hill  billy. 


400   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

scratch,  v.     To  draw  the  spurs  along  an  animal's  sides  from  its  neck 
or  shoulders  to  its  flanks  or  thighs,  thus  inducing  it  to  pitch 
more  vigorously, 
screw  bug,  n.     See  Screw  worm.     Col.  all  parts  W. 

worm,   n.     The  larval  stage  of  a  fly  (Compsomyia  macelleria) 
which  attacks  open  sores  and  wounds. 
set,  n.     (1)   The  cutting  thickness  of  a  saw. 

(2)  See  Pitch  (2). 

(3)  A  corruption  of  "  site."     Thus,  a  good    "  set,"  instead  of  a 

good  "  site,"  is  frequently  used  in  reference  to  the  loca- 
tion of  a  sawmill,  and  may  include  such  features  as  the 
contour  of  the  ground,  the  amount  of  timber  available, 
and  all  other  factors  which  help  to  make  the  site  desirable. 
shack,  n.     A  small  building.     Com.  W.     Cf.  Cabin. 
shake,  n.     (1)  A  flat  piece  of  split  timber  used  as  a  shingle. 
(2)  The  chill  caused  by  ague.     Col.  S. 
V.     To  shiver  with  ague.     Col.  S. 
shank,  n.     (1)   That  part  of  an  animal's  leg  between  the  knee  and 
the  foot;   usually  applies  to  cattle.     Cf.  Cannon. 
(2)   That  part  of  a  tool  which  connects  the  handle  with  the 
acting  part. 
shear,  n.     One  of  a  pair  of  gin  poles. 

V.     To  cut  or  clip  away  wool  or  mohair  of  sheep  or  goats. 
sheave,  n.     The  wheel  of  a  pulley.     Also  known  as  "  shive  "  and 

"  shiv." 
shim,  n.     A  thin  wedge  used  to  align  a  plank. 

V.     To  align  a  plank  by  means  of  a  thin  wedge. 
sill,  n.     The  lowest  timber  in  the  frame  of  a  building. 
silla,   n.     Col.   SW.   for  saddle.      (Sp.:    silla,   chair  or  seat.)     Pro. 

see'-yah. 
single^footer,  n.     An  animal  that  raises  only  one  foot  at  a  time  in 
traveling, 
jack,  n.     A  sledge  hammer  for  use  in  one  hand  in  drilling, 
tree,  n.     That  part  of  a  wagon  gear  to  which  the  traces  are 
hooked.     Frequently  known  as  "whiffle"  tree,  and  improp- 
erly called  "  swingle  "  tree. 
sitfast,  n.     A  corn-like  growth  caused  in  an  animal's  back  by  con- 
stant pressure. 
skein,  n.     The  iron  covering  at  the  end  of  an  axle  and  upon  which 

the  wheel  revolves. 
skew  back,  a.     Having  a  slight  downward  curvature  along  the  back. 

Applies  to  hand  saws.     Cf.  Sway  back. 
slavers,  n.     Excessive  secretions  of  saliva.     Also  spelled  "  slabbers  " 
and  "  slobbers." 


GLOSSARY  401 

sleeper,  n.     A  horizontal  supporting  timber  of  a  floor  or  ceiling; 
usually  applied  to  the  first.     Cf.  Stringer. 
V.     To  change  a  lightly  burned  brand  by  burning  a  heavier  one 
over  some  portion  of  it. 
sleeve,  n.     (1)   That  part  of  a  carpenter's  brace  which  covers  the 
chucks. 

(2)  Part  of  a  wagon  skein. 

(3)  A  double  tube  used  in  splicing  copper  telephone  wire. 
slicker,  n.     A  water-proof  garment  with  narrow  skirts.     Cf.  Pommel 

SLICKER. 

slough,  V.     To  peel  away,  as  dead  skin.     Pro.  sluff. 
snub,  n.     The  turn  of  a  rope  about  a  snub-post. 

V.     To  take  a  number  of  turns  about  a  post  in  such  a  way  that 

the  rope  may  be  released  quickly, 
post,  n.     The  post  to  which  a  rope  is  snubbed. 
sombrero,   n.     A   hat,   usually   of   the  wide-brimmed   felt  variety. 
(Sp.:  sombra,  shade.)    Pro.  som-bray'-ro.    Col.  W.,  "  sombo." 
sorrel,  n.     A  sorrel-colored  animal. 

a.     Of  a  light  bay  color. 
spade,  n.     An  inverted  V-shaped  attachment  placed  on  the  bar  of  a 

bit  designed  for  the  control  of  vicious  animals. 
span,  n.     (1)  A  team  of  two  animals;    usually  applied  to  mares  or 
mules. 

(2)  The  length  of  a  telephone  wdre  between  two  poles. 

(3)  The  distance  between  two  supports  of  a  bridge. 
spay,  V.     To  remove  the  ovaries. 

spike,  n.     The  foremost  animal  in  a  team  ha^dng  an  odd  horse  in 
the  lead, 
team,  n.     A  team  -wath  an  extra  animal  in  the  lead. 
spile,  n.     A  length  of  sumac,  elder,  or  similar  wood  with  the  pith 
removed.     It  is  inserted  in  a  hole  bored  in  a  tree  and  serves 
as  a  spout  by  which  sap  may  be  carried  to  a  bucket.     Com. 
all  parts  E. 
spill,  n.     A  rolled  or  twisted  paper  used  in  lieu  of  a  match  after 
being  ignited  at  an  open  fire.     Com.  S.  and  SE. 
V.     To  throw  the  rider.     Col.  all  parts  W. 
splint,  n.     (1)  An  unnatural  growth  on  the  bone  of  a  horse's  leg  and 
due  to  a  bruise  or  blow.     It  seldom  appears  except  on  the 
foreleg  and  below  the  knee. 
(2)  A  strip  of  padded  wood  or  other  material  used  to  hold  the 
ends  of  fractured  bones  together  till  they  knit. 
spreader,  n.     A  strap  bearing  an  iron  ring  through  which  the  check 
of  a  line   passes.     The   other  end   is   buckled   into   a  hame 
staple.     The  object  of  a  spreader  is  to  provide  greater  free- 
dom of  motion  in  the  use  of  the  check. 


402   HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

stag,  n.  Any  male  animal  castrated  after  the  age  of  about  four 
years. 

stall,  n.     A  compartment  in  a  stable  for  an  animal. 

V.     To  overload  a  team  or  drive  them  into  a  place  from  which 
they  can  not  extricate  the  load. 

stampede,  n.     A  wild  rush  of  excited  cattle  or  horses. 

V.     To  frighten  cattle  or  horses  till  they  run  wildly,  all  in  the 
same  or  different  directions. 

stamp  iron,  n.  A  branding  iron  bearing  a  certain  character  at  one 
end. 

stave,  n.  One  form  of  the  word  "  stay."  Col.  S.  and  SE.  See 
below. 

stay,  n.     A  short  post  or  paling  set  loosely  in  a  panel  of  fence  to 
strengthen  it. 
V.     To  brace  a  fence  vnth  stays. 

steer,  n.     A  castrated  young  male  of  the  ox  kind. 

stem,  n.     The  bole  or  trunk  of  a  tree. 

straightedge,  n.  A  plank,  usually  about  10  feet  long,  dressed  ex- 
actly straight  along  one  edge  and  used  by  carpenters  in 
leveling  and  plumbing. 

stretcher,  n.  A  substitute  for  a  single-  or  double-tree.  A  chain 
provides  a  means  of  central  attachment  and  is  fitted  with 
hooks  or  clevises  into  which  cockeyes  or  other  stretchers  may 
be  fastened.  The  ends  of  the  chain  are  held  apart  by  a 
stick  or  rod  having  each  end  sharpened  with  a  shoulder  and 
thrust  into  a  link  at  the  desired  distance  from  the  end  of  the 
chain.     Also  known  in  some  localities  as  a  "  spreader." 

string,  n.     (1)  A  flight  of  stairs. 

(2)  A  number  of  extra  saddle  animals  held  in  reserve  for  alter- 

nate use. 

(3)  Col.  all  parts  W.  for  lasso  (q.v.). 

stringer,  n.     A  supporting  timber  of  a  floor  or  ceiling;    usually  ap- 
plied to  the  latter.     Also  applies  to  the  floor  timbers  of  a 
bridge.     Cf.  Sleeper. 
stub,  n.     A  short  post  set  beside  a  telephone  pole  and  provided  as  a 
means  of  re-enforcement. 
V.     To  brace  a  telephone  pole  with  a  stub. 
stump  sucker,  n.     See  Cribber. 

surface  fire,  n.     A  fire  occurring  in  the  litter  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground.     Com.  AS. 
measure,    n.     The   method   of   computing   lumber   in   units   of 
square  feet  regardless  of  the  thickness  of  the  planks. 
swab,  n.     A  slender,  flexible  stick  wrapped  with  cloth  at  one  end  and 
used  in  forcing  obstructions  down  a  cow's  throat. 
V.     To  force  an  obstruction  from  the  throat  to  the  stomach  by 
means  of  a  stick. 


GLOSSARY  403 

swamp,  V.     To  clear  away  brush  and  other  obstructions  or  debris 

as  in  clearing  out  for  a  road  or  trail  or  telephone  line  or  in 

logging. 
swamper,  n.     One  who  swamps  or  "  swamps  out." 
sway  back,  a.     Abnormally  low  in  the  back.     Applied  to  horses. 

Cf.  Skew  back. 
sweller,  n.     An  animal  that  inflates  the  lungs  as  the  saddle  cinch 

is  tightened. 


tail  board,  n.     See  End  gate. 

down,  I'.     To  throw  an  animal  by  pulling  it  to  one  side  by  the 

tail, 
gate,  n.      See  Exd  gate. 
tailings,  n.     Refuse  material  from  a  mine. 

tally,  n.     (1)   The  number  of  calves  born  in  a  herd  in  one  year.     Thus 
a  stock  raiser  may  assume  that  the  number  of  his  entire  herd 
is  equal  to  two,  three,  or  four  times  the  number  of  calves 
branded,  depending  upon  whether  or  not  there  has  been  a 
good  "  calf  crop,"  and  in  this  way  keep  a  fairly  accurate  check 
on  the  number  of  cattle  he  owns.     Sales,  slaughters,  and  losses 
are,  of  course,  deducted  from  the  number  thus  obtained. 
(2)  A  unit  of  measure  used  by  surveyors;    usually  10  chains. 
tamp,  r.     To  pack  earth  or  other  material  about  posts,  or  poles,  or 
over  shots  by  repeated  slight  strokes  of  a  crow  bar  or  similar 
tool, 
tamping,  n.     The  material  packed  about  posts,  poles,  etc 
tap,  n.     (1)  The  burr  or  nut  which  holds  a  wagon  wheel  to  the 
skein. 
(2)   The  abbreviated  form  of  "  tapadera"  {q.v.).    Col.  all  parts  W. 
V.     To  pierce  an  animal's  side  at  such  a  point  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  internal  gases  may  escape  from  the  paunch. 
The  operation  as  performed  by  veterinaries  involves  the 
use  of  a  trocar  and   canula.     It  is  frequently  resorted 
to  as  a  means  of  relief  for  cattle  suffering  from  bloat,  but 
is   adopted   only   as   a   last  recourse  in   cases   of  horses 
suffering  from  colic, 
tapadera,   n.     The  leather  covering  of  a  stirrup.      (Sp.:    tapar,   to 

cover.) 
tar  brand,  n.     A  brand  made  by  smearing  tar  or  paint  on  an  animal's 
hair   or  wool.     Usually   applied   to   sheep   and   goats.     Also 
known  as  "  paint  "  brand. 
tenderfoot,  n.     A  person  unacquainted  with  Western  customs.     Col. 

all  parts  W. 
thimble,  n.     See  Skein. 


404    HANDBOOK  FOR  RANGERS  AND  WOODSMEN 

thumb,  V.     To  draw  the  ends  of  the  thumbs  suddenly  and  simul- 
taneously along  both  sides  of  an  animal's  neck  in  a  forward 
or  diagonally  upward  direction.     This  usually  induces  a  half- 
broken  animal  to  pitch. 
top  fire,  n.     A  fire  occurring  in  the  crowns  or  tops  of  timber.     Ako 
known  as  "  crown  "  fire.     Com.  NW. 
pack,  n.     Bedding,  tents,  etc.,  placed  over  the  grain  pack. 
touley,  n.     A  tourist.     Col.   SW.     A  helper  about  an  oil  well  is 

known  as  a  "  tooley." 
track,  n.     The  distance,  on  the  ground,  from  center  to  center  of  tires 
of  the  same  pair  of  wheels. 
V.     The  action  of  the  rear  wheels  in  following  the  path  of  the 
fore  wheels. 
trailer,  n.     A  wagon  attached  and  pulled  behind  another. 
trap,   n.     A  name  loosely   applied   to   several   varieties  of  rock  of 
volcanic  origin, 
corral,  n.     A  corral  fitted  with  a  gate  so  arranged  that  it  may 
be  opened  from  the  outside  by  an  animal  attempting  to 
reach  the  bait,  usually  salt,  placed  just  inside  the  gate. 
The  gate  closes  automatically  after  the  animal  has  passed 
through  and  can  not  be  opened  from  the  inside.     Such 
corrals  are  used  chiefly  in  rough  or  mountainous  country 
inaccessible  to  horsemen  and  in  corraling  stock  too  wild 
to  be  caught  otherwise. 
tread,  n.     (1)   The  width,  from  front  to  back,  of  a  stair  step. 

(2)   Used  in  some  localities  with  reference  to  track,  and  in  others 
meaning  width  of  tire.     Cf.  Gather. 
trocar,  n.     A  large,  hollow  needle,  or  a  needle  encased  in  a  tube,  used 
in  tapping  cattle. 


U 

undercut,  n.     A  notch  cut  into  a  tree  to  xacilitate  felling  it  in  a  de- 
sired direction.     Sometimes  designated  as  "  kerf." 
V.     To  notch  a  tree  for  felling. 

underrunner,  n.     The  strap  which  connects  the  breeching  with  the 
pole  strap  in  a  harness. 


vaquero,  n.  Col.  SW.  for  one  whose  profession  is  breaking  horses 
or  handling  cattle.  (Sp.:  vaquero,  a  "  cowboy.")  Pro. 
buck-a-roo'  or  buck-kay'-roe. 

vault,  n.  To  mount  an  animal  by  springing  into  the  saddle  without 
the  aid  of  the  stirrup. 


GLOSSARY  405 

vent,  n.     Cancelation  of  a  brand   by  reproducing  it  in  fac-simile  on 
the  shoulder  of  the  same  side.     The  term  is  probably  either 
a  corruption  or  a  derivative  of  the  verb  "  vend." 
V.     To  cancel  a  brand  by  reproducing  it  in  fac-simile. 

voids,  n.     The  interstices  between  fragments  of  stone  or  grains  of 
sand  used  in  concrete. 

volt,  n.     The  unit  of  electro-motive  force  in  use  among  electricians, 
and  defined  legally  in  terms  of  the  ampere  and  ohm. 

voltage,  n.     Electro-motive  force  reckoned  in  volts. 

W 

warble,  n.     A  grub  hatched  from  an  egg  deposited  in  the  backs  of 

cattle  by  the  gadfly. 
wether,  n.     A  castrated  sheep;   also  used  in  reference  to  a  castrated 

goat. 
wheel  horse  n.     One  of  the  animals  in  the  team  next  to  the  load; 

usually  applied  to  the  near  animal. 
whiffle-tree,  n.     See  Single-tree. 
whim,  n.     A  machine  fitted  with  a  drum  about  which  a  cable  works 

in  hoisting  material  from  a  shallow  shaft, 
horse,   n.     The  animal  used   to  furnish  power  in  revolving  a 
whim. 
wind-broken,  n.     Chronic  suffering  from  impaired  respiration,  due 

usually  to  over-exertion;   applies  to  horses, 
sucker,  n.     See  Cribber. 
withers,  n.     The  high,  bony  part  of  a  horse's  anatomy  immediately 

over  the  shoulders, 
wolf,  n.     See  Warble. 
vrangler,  n.     One  who  "  wrangles  "  or  takes  care  of  saddle  animals 

used  in  handling  cattle. 


INDEX 


Numbers  refer  to  pages;    illustrations  are  indicated   by  an 
asterisk    (.*;   after  the   page  number. 


Abscesses,  254 

Administering  medicine  to  stock, 

266 
Administrative  districts,  341 
Adze,  173* 
Age  of  cattle,  295 

of  horses,  272 
Aihnents,  297 

BiUousness,  297 

Bleeding  ac  the  nose,  301 

Chapped  hands,  302 

Chilblams,  301 

Cholera  morbus,  300 

Corns,  301 

Cramps,  300 

Diarrhea,  300 

Dysentery,  300 

Felon,  301 

Headache,  300 

Ingrowing  toe-naUs,  302 

Malaria,  298 

Sore  lips,  301 

Sore  lungs,  301 

Sore  throat,  301 

Toothache,  301 
Ailments  and  injuries,  296 
Animal  equipment,  24 

Bells,  27 

Combs  and  brushes,  27* 

Feed  bags,  26* 

Halters,  24* 

Hobbles,  25* 

Picket  pin  and  rope,  26* 
Antidotes,  309 
Antiseptics,  296 
Appendix,  341 
Apples,  preparation  of,  221 
Axes,  170 

Belt  ax,  173 

Broad  ax,  171,  172* 

Care  of,  173 


Axes, 

Double  bitted  ax,  171* 

Filing,  174 

Grinding,  173 

Hand  ax,  172* 

Handles,  inserting,  175 
Making  new,  174 
Removal  of  broken,  174 

Pole  ax,  170* 

Whetting,  17-1 


Baking  powder  bread,  213 

Balls  or  pills,  266 

Bar  irons,  281 

Barring  out,  284* 

Beans,  preparation  of,  220 

Bedding,  7 

Bed  roU,  152* 

Beef,  cuts  of,  216* 

Beer,  recipe  for,  224 

Bells,  27 

Bihousness,  297 

Biscuits,  preparation  of,  213 

Bits,  122 

Bridle,  12* 

Carpenter's,  123* 
Bites,  dog  or  snake,  307 
Blackleg,  258 
Blands,  309 
Blanket,  saddle,  13 
Blasting,  74 

Blasting  out  bovilders,  80 
BlockhoUng,  80,  81* 
Mudcapping,  80* 
Snakehohng,  81* 

Blasting  out  trees  and  stumps, 
81,  82*,  83*,  84* 

Caps,  75 

Charges,  369 

Crimper,  76* 

DjTiamite,  75 


4o: 


408 


INDEX 


Blasting, 

Firing,  79 

Fuse,  76 

Inserting  cap  in  cartridge,  77* 

Loading,  78 

Misfires,  79 

Mistakes  to  be  avoided,  84 

Preparing  the  charge,  76 

Attacliing   cap   to   cartridge, 

77* 
Attacliing  cap  to  fuse,  76* 
Attaching  fuse  to  cartridge, 
77* 

Tamping,  78 
Bleeding  at  the  nose,  301 
Blind  staggers,  248 
Bloat,  257 
Board  rule,  189* 
Bootees,  5 
Boots,  riding,  5 

Rubber,  6 
Bots,  245 

Brace,  carpenter's,  122,  123* 
Branding  rig,  281* 
Brands,  280,  283* 

Arbitrary  symbols,  287*.  288 

Army  brand,  286* 

Cancellation  of,  282,  284* 
Barruig  out,  284* 
Venting,  284* 

Combination,  288,  289* 

Conventional  letters  and  figures, 
286* 

Fire,  280 

Inscribed,  284 

Location  of,  282 

Other  conventional  characters, 
287* 

Paint,  285 

Reading,  288 

Rtmning,  290* 

Sleepering,  290 

Tar,  286* 
Bread,  baking  powder,  213 

Com,  213 

Potato,  213 

Rice,  213 

Rye,  213 

Salt  risuig,  212 

Sour  dough,  212 

Yeast,  212 


Bridges,  66,  67* 
Bridles,  10,  11* 
Bruises,  on  animals,  253 

On  the  human  body,  303 
Buildings,  85 

Attachment  of  corner  studding, 
87* 

Attachment  of  plates,  89=^ 

Attachment  of  ribs  to  studding, 
89* 

Attachment  of  sleepers,  87* 

Attachment     of     stringers     to 
plate,  89* 

Attachment  of  studding,  87* 

Classifications,  86 
Box  frames,  91 
Full  frames,  86 
Half  frames,  90 
Log  frames,  92 

Cornice,  92 

Door  and  window  casings,  98 

Estimates,  87 

Foimdations,  85 

Hog  trough  corner,  91* 

Hog  trough  sill,  86* 

Laying  the  floor,  97 

Laying  the  roof,  92 

Matched  flooring,  97 

Materials,  85 

Nails  required  for  shake  roof,  96 

Nails  required  forshingle  roof,  94 

Notch  for  wall  logs,  92* 

Rafters  cut  too  long,  89* 

Rafters  cut  too  short,  89* 

Saddle  board,  96 

Self-supporting  roof,  90* 

Shakes,  95 

Shakes  required,  96 

Sheeting,  93 

Sliingles  required,  94 

Shingling,  93 

Studding  braces,  89* 

Truss  roof,  91* 

Unmatched  flooring,  97 

Walls,  97 

Water  board,  98* 

Wmd  beam,  90* 
Burns,  on  animals,  252 

On  the  human  body,  30? 
Bush  hook,  62* 
Butchering,  225 


INDEX 


409 


Cakes,  buckwheat,  214 
Flour,  214 
Joiinny,  214 
Potato,  214 
Rico,  214 
Camp  fires,  320 
Building,  320 
Care  of,  321 
Fuel  woods,  320 
Location  of,  320 
Camp  sites,  319 
Accessibility,  319 
Fuel,  319 
Location  of,  319 
Protection,  320 
Protection  of  the  public  health, 

322 
Water,  319 
Camp  tables  and  seats,  218* 
Canned  goods,  211 
Canthook,  180* 
Carpenter's  kit,  119 
Bits,  auger,  122,  123* 

Car,  122,  123* 

DriU,  123* 

Expansive,  122,  123* 

Gimlet,  123*,  124 
Brace,  122,  123* 
CaUper,  125,  126* 
Caliper  rule,  126 
Chisels,  124,  125* 
Claw-hammer,  126* 
Compass,  125,  126* 
Files,  126 

Saw,  126 

Wood,  126 
Grindstone,  127* 
Handsaws,  119 

Crosscut.  119,  120* 

Filing,  120 

Keyhole,  121* 

Rip,  121 

Setting,  121 
L-evel-plimib,  125* 
IVTonkey-wrench,  126* 
Planes,  block,  124* 

Jack,  124* 
Square,  122,  127 
Whetstone,  127* 


Carpenter's  square,  127 
Board  scale,  1 29* 
Diagonal  scale,  128* 
Graduations,  128 
Improvised,  136,  137* 
Octagon  rule,  132*,  135* 

To  lay  off  octagons  without 
the  rule,  135* 
One- hundredth-inch  scale,  129 
Other  uses,  132 
Parts,  127 

Pitch  table,  131,  132* 
Rafter  table,  130* 
Tables  and  scales,  128 
To  bisect  an  angle  without  a 

square,  136,  137* 
To  erect  a  perpendicular  witli- 

out  a  square,  136* 
To  lay  off  a  lookout,  134* 
To  lay  off  rafters,  132,  133* 
To  lay  off  stair  strings,  134* 
To  obtain  the  center  of  a  circle, 

135* 
To  obtain  the  center  of  a  rect- 
angle, 135*,  136 
To  obtain  rafter  lengths,  133* 
Catfish  woimds,  307 
Cattle,  ages  of,  295 
Diseases  of,  257 
Blackleg,  258 
Bloat,  257 
Choking,  261 
Cowpox,  259 

Foot-and-mouth  disease,  260 
Foul  feet,  260 
Loss  of  cud,  258 
Lump  jaw,  259 
IMange,  259 
ISIilk  fever,  261 
Screw  worms,  262 
Tuberculosis,  260 
Warbles,  262 
Tlirowmg,  262* 
Cement,  natural,  99 

Portland,  99 
Centiped,  306* 
Centiped  wounds,  307 
Cereals,  215 
Chaparejos,  18,  19* 
Chapped  hands,  302 
Chilblains,  301 


410 


INDEX 


Chisels,  125* 
Chocolate,  224 
Choking,  261 
Cholera,  in  hogs,  265 

Morbus,  300 
Chopping,  175 
Clawhammer,  126* 
Clothing,  1,  9 
Bootees,  5 
Boots,  riding,  5 

Rubber,  6 
Cap,  2 
Coat,  2,  10 
Coat  sweater,  2 
Hat,  2 

To    use   as   a   drinking- 
cup,  2 
Heel  plates,  4 
Hob-naUs,  4 
Hose  supporters,  6 
Moccasins,  6 
Shirt,  3,  9 
Shoe  calks,  4,  10 
Shoe  strings,  4 
Slicker,  3 
Socks,  6,  10 
Storm  rubbers,  6 
Trousers,  3,  9 
Underwear,  3,  9 
"Work  shoes,  3 
Cocoa,  223 
Coffee,  223 
Colic,  spasmodic,  241 

Wind,  240 
Compass,     carpenter's,    125, 
126* 
Saw,  121 

Standard    Forest    Service, 
200 
Concrete  work,  99 
Aggregate,  101 
Cinders,  101 
Crushed  stone,  101 
Gravel,  101 
Cement,  99 
Natural,  99 
Portland,  99 
Cement  finish,  104 
Concrete,  99 
Concrete  blocks,  104 
Filling  forms,  103 


Concrete  work. 
Forms,  103 

Material  required,  362 
Mixing,  102 
Proportions,  100 
Reenforcement,  102 
Sand,  pit,  100 
River,  101 
Sea,  101 
Setting,  103 
Water,  102 
Confusion  of  directions,  3J2 
Construction  work,  31 
Cooking,  field,  210 
Biscuits,  213 
Bread,  211 
Cakes,  214 
Canned  goods,  211 
Cereals,  215 
Drinks,  223 

Equipment,  for  stations,  28 
For  temporary  camps,  2D 
Eggs,  219 
Fish,  217 
Fruits,  221 
Ginger  snaps,  223 
Jams,  222 
Jellies,  222 
Mush,  214 
Pickles,  222 
Pie  crust,  223 
Pies,  223 

Pudding,  fruit,  223 
Rice,  221 
Sandwiches,  221 
Utensils,  care  of.  224 
Vegetables,  219 
Copperheads,  316 
Corduroy,  68*,  69 
Cornbread,  213 
Commeal  mush,  214 
Corns,  301 
Cowpox,  259 

Cracked  wheat  mush,  214 
Cramps,  300 
Crowbar,  62* 
Crown  fires,  208 
Culverts,  66,  68* 
Curry  combs  and  brush,  27* 
Cuts,  on  animals,  252 
On  the  human  body,  302 


INDEX 


411 


Degrees,  relation  of,  to  per  cent, 

354 
Demulcents,  296 
Dewlaps,  283*,  294 
Diarrhea,  300 
Diseases  of  cattle,  257 

Of  hogs,  265 

Of  horses,  240 

Of  sheep,  263 
Disinfectants,  296 
Dislocations,  304 
Distemper,  242 
Dog  bites,  307 
Drenches,  266 
Drenching  cattle,  267 

Horses,  267 

With  a  syringe,  267 
Drilling,  rock,  72 
Drinks,  beer,  224 

Chocolate,  224 

Cocoa,  223 

Coffee,  223 

Lemonade,  224 

Tea,  223 
Driving,  167 
Drowning,  305 
DufHe  bags,  7 
Dynamite,  composition  of,  75 

Strength,  75 

Use  of  different  strengths,  75 
Dysentery,  300 


E 


Ear  Buttons,  294* 

Loops,  294* 

Marks,  291,  293* 

Pimch  and  dies,  291* 

Tags,  294* 
Eggs,  preparation  of,  219 
Elevations,   to  ascertain  distant, 

356 
Emetics,  309 
Equipment,  1 

Animal,  24 

Cooking,  for  stations,  28 
For  temporary  camps,  29 

For  a  field  trip,  9 

Packing,  20 


Equipment, 
Personal,  1 
Riding,  10 


Faint,  304 
Farcy-Glanders,  243 
Fastenings,  325 
Feed  bags,  26* 
Felon,  301 
Fences,  107 

Barbed  wire,  112* 
Brush,  112 
Comer  posts,  115 

Setting  and  bracing,  115* 
Gates,  117* 
Guy.  118* 
Hinges,  118* 
Tie,  118* 
Lightning-rods,  117 
Line  posts,  116 

Setting  or  driving,  IIG 
Logs,  108* 
Paling,  112* 
Pickets,  111* 
Plank,  112 
Post  and  rail,  110* 
Rack  for  sharpening  posts,  116=^= 
Rail,  108,  109* 
Stakes  and  riders,  109* 
Stone,  107,  108* 
Woven  wire,  114* 
Stretcher,  114* 
Field     work     in     the     Philippine 

Islands,  338 
Fire  brands,  280 
Fire  fightmg,  205 

Classification  of  fires,  208 
Crown  fires,  208 
Groimd  fires,  208 
Surface  fires,  208 
Control,  208 

Crown  fires.  209 
Grovmd  fires,  208 
Stuface  fires,  209 
Equipment,  207 
Fighting  the  flames,  210 
Immediate  action,  207 
Patrol,  206 

Patrolling  the  back  Une,  210 
Preliminary  inspection,  207 


412 


INDEX 


Fire  fighting, 

Procedure     following      prelimi- 
nary inspection,  208 

Tool  caches,  207 

Trespass,  205 
Fish,  preparation  of,  217 
Fistula,  25.5 
Flat  ends,  337* 
Flooring,  matched,  97 

Unmatched,  97 
Foot   and   mouth  disease,   cattle, 
260, 

Sheep,  264 
Foot  rot,  264 
Footwear,  3 

Forest  fires,  six  rules  for  preven- 
tion of,  321 
Forest  service  compass,  200 
Forest  Supervisors'  headquarters, 

341 
Formula  for  wliitewash,  Govern- 
ment, 369 
Foul  feet,  260 
Founder,  242 
Fractiu-es,  304 
Freezing,  305 

Fruits,  preparation  of,  221 
Fuel  woods,  320 


Gates,  fence,  117* 
Galls,  harness  and  saddle,  255 
Gangrene,  247 

General     comparison     of     rattle- 
snakes,   copperheads    and 
moccasins,  317 
Color,  318 
Habits,  318 
Size,  317 
Gila  monster,  315 
Ginger  snaps,  223 
Glanders-Farcy,  243 
Glossary,  379 

Government    formula    for    white- 
wash, 369 
Grades,  per  cent  measurement  of, 
351 
To  ascertain    without  a   grad- 
ometer,  354,  355* 


Grindstone,  127* 
Ground  fires.  208 
Gunshot  wotmds,  303 


Hackamore,  13* 
Halters,  24* 

Leather,  24 

Rope,  25 

Tie  rope,  25 
Handkerchiefs,  7,  10 
Harness       and       saddle       galls, 

255 
Hat,  1,  10 
Hatchet,  marking,  172 

Shinghng,  172*,  173 
Headache,  300 
Heel  plates,  4 
Hitches,  331* 

Anchor,  333 

Blackwall,  334 

Bowhne  sling,  332 

Cat's  paw,  333 

Clove,  332 

Clove  and  a  half,  332 

Cross,  152*,  153 

Diamond,  149* 

Grain,  148* 

Half,  152*,  331 

Mooring,  333 

Overhand  sUng,  332 

Rolling,  333 

Rovmd     turn     and     two     half 
hitches,  333 

Squaw.  151*,  152 

Telephone,  333 

Timber,  332 

Timber  and  a  half,  332 

Two  half,  333 
Hobbles,  25* 

Chain,  239 

Cross,  239* 

Double,  238 

Horseshoe,  239 

Picket,  238 

Side,  238 
Hobbling,  238 
Hob-nails,  4 
Hoes,  61* 
Hogs,  diseases  of,  265 


INDEX 


413 


Hogs,  diseases  of, 
Cholera.  265 
Mange,  265 
Thumps,  266 
Hominy,  215 
Horses,  age  of,  272,  273* 
Bad  habits  of,  269 

Balking,  270 

Biting,  269 

Bolting,  271 

Cribbing,  270 

Kicking,  269 

Rearing  in  harness,  271 

Setting  back,  270 

Stall  kicking.  269 

Stall  pawing,  270 

Striking,  269 
Bones  of,  279* 
Care  of,  227 

Barley,  229 

Bran,  229 

Ear  com,  227 

Feed,  227 

Fodders,  230 

Grain,  227 

Green  com,  227 

Hay,  230 

Oats,  229 

Range  grasses,  230 

Roughage,  229 

Salt,  231 

Shelled  corn,  228 

Tame  grasses,  230 

Water,  227 

Wheat,  229 
Diseases  of,  240 

Abscesses,  254 

Blind  staggers,  248 

Bots,  245 

Bruises,  253 

Bums,  252 

CoUc,  spasmodic,  241 
Wind,  240 

Cuts,  252 

Distemper,  242 

Fistula.  255 

Founder,  242 

Gangrene,  247 

Glanders-Farcy,  243 

Harness    and    saddle    galls, 
255 


Horses,  diseases  of. 

Horsepox.  247 

Injuries  and  other  ailments, 
249 

Internal  poisoning,  250 

Lameness,  249 

Loco  poisoning,  251 

Pink  eye,  246 

Poison  wounds,  251 

Poll  evil,  256 

Proud  flesh,  253 

Punctures,  254 

Quittor,  256 

Rabies,  247 

Scratches,  256 

Sitfasts,  255 

Sweeney,  256 
HobbUng,  238 

Chaining,  239 

Cross  hobbles,  239* 

Double  hobbles,  238 

Horseshoe  hobbles,  239 

Picket  hobbles,  238 

Side  hobbles,  238 
Hoof,  the,  232,  236* 

Bars,  233 

Coronet.  234 

Frog.  232 

Heel,  233 

Parts  of,  232 

Sole,  232 

Toe,  233 

WaUs,  233 
Jaw  of,  273* 
Legs  of,  278* 
Parts  of,  240* 
Purchasing  a  saddle  horse,  272 

Age,  272,  273* 

Build,  276 

Color,  276 

Eyes,  277 

Gaits,  279 

General  disposition,  276 

Hearing,  278 

Hoofs,  278 

Legs,  278 

Pulse,  277 

Respiration,  278 

Size,  276 
Shoeing,  231 

Attaching  the  shoe,  236 


414 


INDEX 


Horses,  shoeing, 

FinisWng,  237 

Fitting  the  shoe,  236 

Holding  the  feet,  234 

Kit,  231 

Leveling  the  hoof,  235 

Removal  of  shoes,  234 
Subjugation  of,  267 

Head-and-tailing,  269 

Throwing,  267 

Wliirling,  269 
Horsepox,  247 
Hose  supporters,  6 
Hot  treatments,  297 
Housewife,  10 


Identification  of  stock,  279 
Methods  used,  280 
Brands,  280 

Fire  brands,  280 
Bar  irons,  281 
Cancelation  of,  282 
Barring  out,  284* 
Ventmg,  284* 
Location  of,  282 
Rimning  irons,  282 
Stamp  irons,  280 
Inscribed  brands,  284 
Paint  brands,  285,  286* 
Changmg  brands,  288 
Running,  290* 
Sleepering,  290 
Characters  used,  285 

Arbitrary     symbols,    287*. 

288 
Combinations,  288,  289* 
Conventional  letters  and 

figures,  286* 
Other    conventional    char- 
acters, 287* 
Reading  brands,  288 
Dewlaps,  283*,  294 
Ear  buttons,  294* 
Loops,  294* 
Marks,  291,  293* 
Classifications,  291 
Reading,  291 
Tags,  294* 
Ingrowing  toe-nails,  302 


Injuries,  to  animals,  249 
To  the  human  body,  302 

Bruises,  303 

Bums,  303 

Catfish  wotmds,  307 

Cuts,  302 

Dislocations,  304 

Dog  bites,  307 

Drowning,  305 

Famt,  304 

Fractures,  304 

Freezing,  305 

Gunshot  wounds,  303 

Lightning  stroke,  306 

Poisoning,  309 

Shock,  305 

Snake  bites,  307 

Sprains,  304 

Simstroke,  305 

Tarantula,    centiped,    and 
scorpion  woimds,  307 
Inscribed  brands,  284 
Irons,  bar,  281 
Branding,  280 
Running,  282 
Stamp,  280 


Jams,  222 
Jellies,  222 
Johnny  cake,  214 


Knots,  325,  327* 
Bowline,  328 
BowUne  on  a  bight,  328 
Carrick  bend,  329 
Combined  surgical  and  reef,  326 
Double  overhand,  329 
Double  sheet  bend,  328 
Figure  8,  328 
Granny,  328 
Overhand,  326 

Overhand  and  half  hitch,  329 
Running  bowline,  328 
Sheepshank,  329 
Single  sheet  bend,  328 
Square  or  reef,  326 
Staffordshire  or  Tait's,  326 
Surgical,  326 


INDEX 


415 


Knots, 
Thief,  328 
Turk's  head,  329 


Lameness,  249 

Lampas,  249 

Land  descriptions,  194 

Lands  acquired  under  the  Weeks 

law,  346 
Land  surveys,  192 

Base  Unes,  192 

Comers,  196,  198* 

Guide  meridians,  193 

Half  sections,  194* 

Land  descriptions,  194 

IVIetes  and  boiinds  surveys,  197 

Other  descriptions,    196,    197* 

Principal  meridians,  192 

Quarter  sections,  195* 

Quarter-quarter  sections,  195 

Quarter  -  quarter  -  quarter    sec- 
tions, 195* 

Quarter  -   quarter  -   quarter  - 
quarter  sections,  195* 

Range  lines,  193 

Sections,  194 

Section  Unes,  193 
Numbers,  193 
Subdivisions,  193 

Standard  parallels,  192 

Township  lines,  193 
Lash  hook,  23* 
Lash  rope  and  cinch,  23 
Latigo  ties,  clove,  334* 

Double  half  hitch,  334 

Overhand,  334 
Lemonade,  preparation  of,  224 
Level-plumb,  125* 
Lightning  stroke,  306 
Live  stock,  identification  of,  279 

Brands,  280 

Dewlaps,  283*,  294 

Ear  buttons,  294* 
Loops,  294* 
Marks,  291,  293* 
Tags,  294* 
Location  of  camp  sites,  319 
Log  rules,  369 

Comparison  of,  377 


Log  rules, 

Doyle,  370 

Doyle-Scribner,  373 

Scribner,  373 

Scribner  Decimal  C.  374 

Two-tliirds,  370 
Logs,  bucking,  186*,  187* 

Scaling,  188*,  190*,  191* 
Loss  of  cud,  258 
Lump  jaw ,  259 
Lung  worms,  264 

M 

ISIalaria,  298 

Malaria  mosquito,  298 

Transmission  of  malaria,  29y 
Mange,  cattle,  259 

Hog,  265 

Sheep,  263 
ISIattock,  60* 
IMeasures,  347 

Apothecaries'  or  wine,  348 

Cubic,  348 

Dry,  348 

Grain,    hay,    seed,    and    vege- 
tables, 349 

Liquid,  348 

Long,  347 

Spoon  and  cup,  349 

Square,  348 

Surveyors',  347 
Meats,  boiled,  217 

Broiled,  217 

Domestic,  216 

Fried,  216 

Game,  215 

Roasted,  217 
]\Iilk  fever,  261 
ISIoccasins  (footwear),  6 

(Reptiles),  316 
ISIorrals,  26* 
Moimtain  boomer,  315 
IMules,  shoeing,  237 
Mush,  214 

N 
Nails,    number   per   poimd,    359, 

360* 
Nooses,  halter,  330* 
Hangman's,  33G 
SUp,  331 


416 


INDEX 


Oatmeal,  preparation  of,  214 

Oil  stone,  127* 

Onions,  preparation  of,  220 


Packing,  147 

Attachment  of  ropes  to  saddle, 

148* 
Hitches  used,  148 
Cross,  152*,  153 
Diamond,  149*,  150*,  151* 
Grain,  148* 
Half,  152* 
Squaw,  151*,  152 
Packing  equipment,  20 
Pack  saddle,  20 

Combination,  20,  21* 
Cross-tree,  20 
Fork  of,  21* 
Tree  of,  21* 
Full  rigged,  23* 
Muley,  20 
Fork  of,  20* 
Pack  saddle  parts,  21 
Breast  collar,  21,  22* 
Breeching,  21,  22* 
Cinches,  22* 
Latigoes,  22 
Rig,  22 
Paint  brands,  285 
Painting,  105 

Amount  of  paint  required,  107 
Care  of  paint  brushes,  107 
Coats,  106 
Colors,  106 
Composition,  105 
Object,  105 
Panniers,  23 
Peavy, 180* 

Per  cent,  relation  of  to  degrees, 
354 
Of  grades,  351* 
Pick,  60* 

Picket  pin  and  rope,  26* 
Pickles,  preparation  of,  222 
Pie  crust,  preparation  of,  223 
Pies,  preparation  of,  223 
Pills  or  balls,  266 
Pinch  bar,  62* 


Pink  eye,  246 
Planes,  124* 
Poisoning,  loco,  251 

Internal,  in  animals,  250 
In  the  hiunan  body,  309 
Poisonous  plants,  314 
Poisonous  snakes,  316 

Common  characteristics,  316 

Emission  of  poison,  317 

Fangs,  316 

General  comparison  of,  317 
Color,  318 
Habits,  318 
Size,  317 

Poison  glands,  317 

Poison,  the,  317 
Poisons,  310 

Antidotes,  309 

Blands,  309 

Emetics,  309 

Stimulants,  310 
Poison  wounds,  251 
Posts, 

Comer,  115 

Setting  and  bracing,  115 

Lme,  116 

Setting  or  driving,  116 
Potatoes,  preparation  of,  219 
Pot  rack,  218* 
Protection  of  the  public  health, 

322 
Proud  flesh,  253 
Provisions,  30 

For  stations,  30 

For  temporary  camps,  30 
Pudding,  preparation  of,  223 
Punctures,  254 


Quirt,  18* 
Quittor,  256 


R 


Rabies,  247 

Rattlesnakes,  316 

Rearing  rig,  271* 

Reptiles,  315 

Gila  monster,  315 
Homed  toad,  315 
IMountain  boomer,  315 

Rice,  preparation  of,  221 


INDEX 


417 


Riding,  139 

Adjusting  the  blanket,  139 

Cheeking,  142 

"Climbing  on,"  143 

Dismounting,  145 

^loimting,  141 

Placing  the  saddle,  139 

Position,  143 

Reining,  145 

Reins,  145 

Removing  the  saddle,  141 

Saddhng, 139 

Tightening  the  cinch,  140 

Vaultmg,  142 
Riding  equipment,  10 

Bit,  12* 

Bridle,  10,  11* 

Chaparejos,  18,  19* 

Hackamore,  13* 

Quirt,  18* 

Saddle,  14* 

Saddle  blanket,  13 

Spurs,  17,  18* 
Rock  drilling,  72 

Chum  drilling,  74 

Double  ja<^king,  72 

Remo^-ing  the  cuttings,  74 

Single  jacking,  72 


Saddle,  miUtary,  14* 

Pack,  20,  21* 
Fork  of,  21* 
Full  rigged,  23* 
Parts  of,  22* 

Stock,  14* 
Saddle  blanket,  13 

Cinch  buckle,  17* 

Cinches,  15* 

Horns,  16* 

Seat  plate,  16* 

Stirrups,  15* 

Tapaderas,  16* 

Tree,  14* 
Saddle  gaUs,  255 
Saddle  horse,  purchasing  a,  272 

Shoeing,  238 
Sag  tables,  355 

Sandwiches,  preparation  of,  221 
Sawing,  178 


Sawing, 

Fihng,  178 
Saws,  hand,  119 

Buck,  177* 

Crosscut,  119 

Keyhole,  121* 

Rip,  121 

Setting,  179 

Teeth,  120 
Saws,  two-man,  176*,  177 
Scabies,  263 
Scales,  log,  369 
Scorpion,  306* 
Scorpion  woimds,  307 
Scratches,  256 
Screws,  363*-368* 
Screw  worms,  262 
Shakes,  95 
Shears,  137,  138* 
Sheep,  diseases  of,  263 

Foot  and  mouth  disease,  264 

Foot  rot,  264 

Limg  worms,  264 

]Mange,  263 

Stomach  worms,  264 
Sheep,  holding,  265 
Shingles,  93 
ShmgUng,  93 
Shirt,  3,  9 
Shock,  305 
Shoe  calks,  4 
Shoeing  horses,  231 

Mules,  237 

Saddle  animals,  238 
Shoeing  kit,  231* 

Rig,  235* 
Shoes,  10,  237* 
Shoe  strings,  4,  10 
Shovels,  61* 
Sitfasts,  255 
Sleepering,  290 
SUcker,  3 
Snake  bites,  307 
SnakehoUng,  80 
Socks,  6,  10 
Sore  lips,  301 

Limgs,  301 

Throat,  301 
SpUces,  335*,  336*,  337* 

Clove  and  overhand,  336 

Double  eye,  336 


418 


INDEX 


Splices, 

Eye,  336 

Hawser  bend,  335 

Leather,  336 

Permanent,  335 

Temporary,  335 

Toggle,  336 
SpUtting,  176 
Sprains,  304 
Spurs,  17.  18* 
Square,  carpenter's,  127 
Stimulants,  310 
Stomach  worms,  264 
Storm  rubbers,  6 
Sunstroke,  305 
Surface  fires,  208 
Sur^^eying  crews  and  their  work, 

*198 
Surveys,  land,  192 
Sweeney,  256 


Tarantula,  306* 
Wounds,  307 
Tar  brands,  285 
Tarpaulins,  7 
Tea,  preparation  of,  223 
Telephones,  49 
Installation  of,  49 

Connections  at  protector,  50 
Connection  of  batteries,  51* 
Connection  of  fuse  with  set, 

49 
Connections  in  the  set,  50 
Dead  ending  the  line  wire,  49 
Drip  loops,  50 
Groimd  rods,  50 
Joints  and  splices,  50 
To  test  dry  batteries,  51 
Tubes,  50 
Ohms  resistance  of  ringer  coils, 

49 
Protection,  49 
Troubles,  51 
Telephone  lines,  31 

Approaches  and  crossings,  46 
cumbers,  41* 
CUmbmg,  41 
Connections,  47*.  50* 
Costs,  31 


Telephone  lines, 

Damage  to  telephone  lines,  52 
Dead  ends,  45*,  46* 
Equipment,  32 
General,  31 
Laying  wire,  40 
Lightning  rods,  47 
Location,  32 
Other  lines,  48 
Poles,  33 

Attaching    brackets   and   in- 
sulators, 36* 
Dimensions,  34 
Holes,  36 
IMaterial,  33 

Methods  of  strengthening,  38 
Braces,  38,  39* 
Guys,  38,  39* 
Re-enforcements,  38 
Stubs,  39*,  40* 
Uses  of  giiys  and  braces,  38 
Pole  steps,  42 
Poles  in  place,  35 
Preparation,  34 
Preserv'ative     treatment     of. 

358 
Pull,  37* 
Rake,  37* 
Roof.  34* 
Setting,  37 
Spaces,  36 
Tamping,  37 

Use  of  different  lengths,  35 
Utilization,  36 
PreUminarj'  siu-vey,  31 
Right-of-way  clearance,  33 
Sag,  43 
Splices,  44* 
Hook,  45 

In  galvanized  iron  wire,  44 
In  hard  drawn  copper  wire. 
45 
Ties,  42*,  43*,  44* 
Figure  8,  43 
Horseshoe,  43 
Swinging,  43 
Tree  lines,  48 
Tra^.sportation,  32 
Throwing  cattle,  262* 

Horses,  267 
Thumps,  266 


INDEX 


419 


Tie  rope,  25* 
Timber  cruising,  182* 
Estimating,  ISO 
FeUing,  183,  184*,  185*,  186* 
Toothache,  301 
Trail  construction,  52 
Bed,  65 
Blazes,  71 

Bridges  and  culverts,  66 
Capping,  71 
Clearing,  55 
Corduroy,  69* 
Cross-section  of  trail,  65* 
Disposal  of  debris,  55 
Drain  ditches,  70 
Grade,  54 
Grading,  55 
Blasting,  55 
Care  of  tools,  64 
Tools  required,  55 

Axes,  62,   170*,  171*.  172* 
Brush  fork,  63* 
Bush  hook,  62* 
Combined   pick   and   mat- 
tock, 59,  60* 
Graders,  59 
Grubbing  hoes,  60,  61* 
IMattock,  59,  60* 
Pick,  59,  60* 
Pinch  bar,  62* 
Plow,  56 
Rake,  62 
Shovels,  61* 
Use  of  picks,  mattocks,  etc., 
63 
Locating  the  route,  54 
Preliminary  siirvey,  53 
Purpose,  53 
Retaining  walls,  65 
Switchbacks,  66 
Tread,  70 
Traverse  table,  204,  357 
Troubles,  telephone,  51 
Trousers,  3,  9 
Tuberculosis  (cattle),  260 
Turk's  head,  329* 


Underwear,  3,  9 

Utensils,  cooking,  care  of,  224 


Variation.  203* 

Vegetables,  preparation  of,  219 

Venting,  284* 

W 

Wagons,  153 
Bed,  163,  164* 
Bolster  plates,  160* 
Brake,  159,  162* 
Lever,  161* 
Use  of,  167 
Care  of,  164 
Dish,  155 
Evener.  162,  164* 
Evener   end   showing   bushing, 

163* 
Front  bolster,  159,  160* 
Gather,  155 
Gears,  158 

Front,  steel  axle,  157* 

Wood  axle,  158* 
Log,  165* 

Rear,  with  moimtain  brake, 
161* 
Greasing  the  bolster  plate,  166 
Hounds,  158 
Neck  yoke,  162,  163* 
Oiling  or  greasing,  164 
Pitch,  155 
Reach  plate,  159* 
Rear  bolster,  159 
Removal    and    replacement    of 

taps,  165 
Removal    and    replacement    of 

wheels,  166 
Rocking  bolster,  160* 
Rub  iron,  164* 
Single  trees,  163,  164* 
Size,  153 
Skeins,  153*.  156*.  157 

Attachment  of  to  axle,   156* 
Standards,  160* 
Tires,  167 
Tongue,  161,  162* 
Track,  155 
Type,  153 
Wheels,  154 
Warbles,  262 
Water  moccasins,  316 


420 


INDEX 


Wedges,  179,  180* 

Weeks  law,  lands  acquired  under, 

346 
Weights,  346 

Apothecaries',  347 

Avoirdupois,  346 

ISIiscellaneous,  352 

Troy,  347 
Whitewash,  Government  formula 
for,  369 


Woods  work,  170 
Work  shoes,  3,  10 
Wounds,  catfish,  307 

Centiped,  307 
Woimds,  poison,  251 

Tarantula,  307 


Yeast.  212 
Yeast  bread,  212 


N 


